From the Beginning of Time- Chapter 1

• The origin of human beings can be divided into many stages.
• Subgroup of a larger group of mammals is known as Primates.
• About 36-24 mya, Primates existed in Asia and Africa.
• The existence of Hominoids can be traced by about 24 mya.
• Apes came under Hominoids and had comparatively smaller brain.
• Hominoids had four legs. Although they moved on their four paws but were unable to walk erect. Hominids which
• Evolved from Hominoids originated in Africa in 5.6 mya.
• The Hominids belonged to Hominidae family.
• Hominids are further subdivided into branches known as genus.
• Homo is originally a Latin word which means ‘man’. Homo came into existence approximately in 2.5 mya. Their fossils
• Date back to 2.2 mya to 1.8 mya.
• Homo habilis were more intelligent in comparison to Australopithecus.
• Homo erectus were familiar with the art of walking.
• In many parts of Asia and Africa, fossils of Homo erectus have been found.
• Homo sapiens were the modern men. They were intelligent and wise.
• Homo sapiens came into existence between 0.19 to 0.16 mya.
• Fossils of Homo habilis have been found at Omo in Ethiopia and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The fossils of Homo
• Erectus have been found in Africa and Asia.
• Homo sapiens were quite intelligent. They used sophisticated tools and languages.
• Homo neanderthalensis were also called Neanderthal men. Because their fossils have been found in Neander valley in Germany.
• Terra Amata in Southern France gives the most important evidence. The hut was made of thatch.
• The life of early men underwent a sea change due to the discovery of fire.
• Chesowanja in Kenya and Swartkrans in South Africa are the places where the traces of the use of fire have been found.
• The tools of early men were made of stones. The tools constituted hand axes, choppers and flake tools.
• The earliest evidence of stone tools were found in Ethiopia and Kenya.
• About 21,000 years ago, sewing needle was invented.
• The art of speech helped the man to develop culturally.
• The early human beings painted the pictures of flora and fauna, sun, moon, rivers and their daily activities.
• Paintings were done on the walls and roofs of the caves. Altamira, Lascaux and Chauvet are considered to be the earliest famous cave paintings.
• The early humans also made small sized sculptures.
• The Hadza were also fond of hunting and lived around the salty lake, Lake Eyasi.
• Altamira is a cave site in Spain.
• Marcelino Sanz deSautula and his daughter Maria brought into notice the cave paintings.
• Mary and Louis Leakey identified Otduvai.
• Some historians think that ethnographic data cannot be used without understanding of the past society.
• Ethnography stands for the analytical study of contemporary ethnic society.
• The early humans were completely dependent on nature.
• They gathered food by fishing and hunting.
• Hooks and harpoons were used to gather small and large fishes.
• Early men lived on trees, in caves and later on in huts.
• Early men began to live in caves around 400,000 years ago.
• Cave Lazaret is the earliest example of cave dwelling. It is in Southern France.

Important terms:

• Fossils: The remains of ancient plants, animals and humans which have become hard and turned into rock.
• Species: A group of organisms that can be bred to produce healthy and fertile offspring which are divided smaller than Genus.
• Primates: They are subgroup of a larger group of mammals, and have a long gestation period followed by birth, mammary glands, different types of teeth, and ability to maintain a constant body temperature.
• Artefacts: Objects made by human beings such as tools, painting, sculpture, engravings, etc.
• Anthropology: A branch of science which deals with human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology.
• Ethnography: The study of contemporary ethnic group. It studies the modes of livelihood, gender, political institutions, social customs, etc.
• Australopithecus: Southern apes.
• Homo: A Latin word which means man.
• Homo erectus: Human who could walk erect on their legs.
• Homo sapiens: Wiseman, also known as modern humans.

Writing and City Life Chapter-2

• A great civilization flourished in Mesopotamia around 5000 BCE.
• Mesopotamia is the modern Iraq.
• Originally Mesopotamia is a Greek word which means the land between two rivers.
• Tigris and Euphrates were the two rivers between which the civilization of Mesopotamia flourished.
• Mesopotamia is a flat plain. The excavation work started here about 150 years ago.
• Sumer region was the lower part of the Mesopotamian civilization.
• It was the heart of the civilization.
• Sumerians were the first to develop a civilization in Mesopotamia. That is why the civilization has been named after them, i.e. Sumerian civilisation.
• As per excavations, there were three types of cities in Mesopotamia. They were religious, commercial and royal cities.
• Ur, Lagash,Kish, Uruk and Mari were some of the most important cities of Mesopotamian civilisation.
• Soil of Mesopotamia was very fertile but agriculture was threatened because of natural causes. The crops grown were wheat, barley, peas and lintel.
• Mesopotamian civilization was based on a definite plan.
• There were three kinds of slaves that existed in Mesopotamian society. They were war prisoners, children sold by their parents and those who failed to pay their debt. They were ill treated.
• Mesopotamian society consisted of three classes, i.e. Upper class, Middle class and Lower class.
• Ruling class, the nobles, the royal people and the high officials belonged to the upper class.
• Members of the upper class led a luxurious life.
• Merchants, traders, landlords, artisans, craftsmen belonged to the second class.
• Slaves belonged to the lower class.
• Cows, goats, oxen and sheep were the main animals of domestication.
• Hammurabi, the great, was the ruler of Mesopotamia during the period of 2067-2025 BCE.
• Code of conduct was the greatest contribution of Hammurabi. They were 282 in numbers and covered every aspect of life.
• Cuneiform script was the script of Mesopotamia.
• Mesopotamians had great interest in literature also. Gilgamesh was their famous epic. It was the work of Uruk who was the ruler of Mesopotamia in 2700 BCE.
• Mesopotamians were interested in mathematics too.
• Sixty important numbers have been found in their numerals.
• Babylonia had an important role in the history of Mesopotamia.
• Temples of Mesopotamia also had much importance in the history of Mesopotamia. Temples were centres of religious activities. These temples were dedicated to different gods and goddesses

Important terms:

• Mesopotamia: The land between two rivers. It is made of Greek words ‘Mesos’ meaning middle and ‘Potamos’ meaning river.
• Division of labour: In this system, each labour/person is given a particular part of work in which he is skilled.
• Nuclear Family: A very small family consisting of husband, wife and their children.
• Cuneiform: The wedge-shaped symbol which represents the syllables and sound of a word.
• Steles: Stone slabs with inscriptions or carvings.

            An Empire across Three Continents- Chapter 3

• The Roman Empire was spread over a vast region. It was spread into three continents— Europe, West Asia and North Africa.
• Many languages were spoken by the people of the Roman Empire. Officially Latin and Greek languages were patronised by the empire.
• The political evolution of the Roman Empire resembles an interesting novel, which no reader wants to leave in-between. It is divided into two parts—early empire and late antiquity.
• Roman Empire was founded by Augustus who ruled from 27 BCE to 14 CE and brought to an end the chaotic condition prevailing in the Roman Empire.
• During Augustus’ reign, Roman Empire made unprecedented growth in the field of literature. He gave a new look to the Roman army which played an important role in expanding the Roman Empire.
• The economic reforms introduced by Augusts, not only made the people of Roman Empire prosperous but also helped in strengthening the very foundation of the empire.
• Augustus appointed Tiberius his successor who ruled from 14 to 37 CE.
• Trojan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98 to 117 CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding the frontier of Roman Empire.
• The first and the second centuries were known for a period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion but the third
• Century brought the first major signs of internal strain.
• Shapur I, the Iranian ruler had eradicated the Roman army and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.
• At the same time a whole series of Germanic tribes began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and the entire period saw repeated invasions of a whole line of provinces that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany.
• In Roman society there was system of the nuclear family. The family was used to be patriarchal in nature. The literacy rate was casual. The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected in many ways.
• There were some regional languages spoken as Aramaic in the near East, Coptic spoken in Egypt, Punic and Berber in North Africa, Celtic in Spain and the north-west.
• The empire had a significant economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc. Production was traded and consumed in huge quantities, and they came mainly from Spain.
• The Roman people were polytheists and used to worship several gods and goddesses. Their popular deities were Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Minerva and Isis.
• One of the most important religious sects of Roman Empire was Mithraism. The otherpopular sect ‘Judaism’ was worshipped by Jehova. The Judaism considered Jehova as the creator of the universe.
• Slavery was a tradition in the Mediterranean and in the near east, as warfare became less widespread. With the establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to turn either to slave breeding.
• The position of the slave in the Roman Empire was very miserable. They were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18 hours a day.
• The late Roman aristocracy was extremely wealthy but not more powerful than the military leaders who came almost entirely from non-aristocratic backgrounds. The middle class was made of large mass of persons connected with grand service in the bureaucracy and also with prosperous merchants and farmers in the eastern provinces.
• The monetary system of the empire broke with the silv er-based currencies of the first three centuries. The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land.
• Large expansion of Roman territory was in a less advanced state. Transhumance was spread in the countryside of Numidia. These pastoral and semi-nomadic communities were often on the move, carrying their oven-shaped huts (called mapalia). As Roman estates expanded in North Africa, the pastures of those communities were hugely reduced and their movements more tightly regulated. Even in Spain the north was much less developed, and inhabited largely by a Celtic-speaking peasantry that lived in hilltop villages called castella.
• The Emperor Constantine decided to make Christianity the official religion in the fourth century and the Emperor Diocletian (284-305) fortified the frontiers, reorganized provincial boundaries, and separated civilian from military functions, granting greater autonomy to the military commanders.
• The traditional religious culture of the classical world, both Greek and Roman, had been polytheist.
• The Visigoths in Spain was destroyed by the Arabs between 711 to 720, that of the Franks in Gaul (c.511-687) and that of the Lombards in Italy (568-774). These kingdoms foreshadowed the beginning of a different kind of world that is usually called ‘medieval’.
• Roman and Sasanian empires had fallen to the Arabs in a series of stunning confrontations. Those conquests, extended upto Spain, Sind and Central Asia, began in fact with the subjection of the Arab tribes by the emerging Islamic state.

Important terms:

• Caliphate: Islamic state led by a supreme religion
• Annals: Record of events year by year.
• Papyrus: A reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the river Nile from which paper is made.
• Mediterranean: A sea connected to the Atlantic ocean.
• Aristocracy: A form of government in which power lies in the hands of a small ruling group who are bom in a highest social class.
• Conscription: The compulsory enlistment of people in some sort of national service.
• The Euphrates:The longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia.
• Denarius: A small silver coin first minted about 211 BC.
• Barbarians: Person who is perceived to be uncivilized.
• Aramaic: The language spoken by a large group of the north-east.
• Coptic: The language spoken in Egypt.
• Punic: The language spoken in North Africa
• Berber: The language spoken in North Africa
• Celtic: The language spoken in Spain and the north-west.
• Dressel 20: A container carried the Spanish olive oil.
• Amphorae: The large storage container capacities between one-half and two and one half tons
• Draconian: Severity
• Frankincense: An aromatic resin obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia
• Echelon: A rank/position of an authority in an organisation.
• Intelligentsia: A social class of people engaged in complex mental labour aimed to spread culture and are interested in politics, literature, etc.
• Authoritarian: The authoritarian believes that people should obey his authority and rules even if he is wrong.
• Antiquity: Any period before the middle Ages (476-1453) or ancient past.
• Archaeological: The study of cultures of the past, and the periods of history by examining the remains of buildings and objects.
• Polytheist: The worship of or belief in many Gods.
• Principate: The first period of the Roman Empire from 27 BCE – 284 CE.

                 The Central Islamic Lands- Chapter 4

• Prior to the rise of Islam, Arabia was quite backward socially, politically, economically and religiously in the 7th century.
• Before the rise of Islam, Arabia was dominated by the Bedouins, a nomadic tribe.
• Family was the basic unit of the Arabian society. Patriarchal family system was prevalent in which the head of the family was the eldest male member.
• The position of the women in the society was very deplorable.
• Date-palm and milk were the main constituents of their food items.
• Institution of slavery was also prevalent in the society. The slaves were treated ruthlesslyand were severely punished if broke the social norms. k
• Prior to the rise of Islam, the trade was not much developed. It was because Bedouins Iwere always indulged in loot and plunder and trade routes were not safe.
• The principle of‘Might is right’ prevailed in the society prior to the rise of Islam, because there was lack of a central authority.
• Prophet Muhammad is regarded as one of the greatest personalities in the world history. He was born at Mecca in 570.
• Reciting Raima, Namaz, Rauja, Zakat and Hajj are five pillars of Islam.
• Islam laid special stress on the principle of equality and believed that all men are the descendants of Allah.
• Islam strongly opposed idol worship.
• The successors of Prophet Muhammad were called Khalifas (Caliphs).
• The main duties of the Khalifas were to safeguard and spread Islam.
• The Umayyad dynasty was founded by Muawiya in 661. The rule of this dynasty continued till 750.
• The Abbasids came to power in 750. The foundation of Abbasids dynasty was laid down by Abu-ol-Abbas in 750.
• 9th century witnessed the downfall of the Abbasid empire. Taking the advantage of this, several sultanates emerged.
• The economic condition of Islamic world, during the medieval period was very prosperous.
• During medieval period, a new sect arose among the people having faith in Islamic doctrines, known as Sufi sect.
• The Sufis were liberal in their thought and they dedicated their lives for the service of humanity and propagation of Islam.
• Ibn Sina was a great philosopher and a medical practitioner from Arabia. He was also known as Avicenna in Europe.

Important terms:

• Bedouins: The nomadic tribe of Arabia.
• Umma: The society founded by Prophet Muhammad.
• Hizrat: The event of Prophet Muhammad’s emigration from Mecca to Medina.
• Zakat: A religious tax collected from Muslims.
• Jaziya: A tax imposed upon the non-Muslims.
• Dhimmis: They were the protected people who paid tax to the government for the protection of their life and property.
• Synagogues: Places of worship for the Jews.

Nomadic Empires- Chapter 5

• Mongols were the nomadic tribes who inhabited in central Asia.
• Mongols were divided into many groups. These groups were constantly engaged in wars with each other.
• Mongol society was patriarchal in nature. Birth of a son was considered to be the sign of prosperity.
• Genghis Khan played an outstanding role in the establishment of Nomadic Empire.
• Genghis Khan was born in 1162 CE. His childhood name was Temujin. His father Yesugei was Kiyat’s tribe chief. Oelun-eke was the name of his mother.
• Genghis Khan faced many problems in his childhood as his father was murdered by a tribe.
• With the help of some persons like Jamuqa, Boghuruchu, Tughril Khan, etc. he successfully defeated some powerful tribes.
• Quriltai bestowed upon Temujin, the title of Genghis Khan in 1206. He ruled upto 1227 CE.
• During his reign, Genghis Khan conquered the region of northern China and Qara Khita.
• Genghis Khan brought some changes in the area under his rule. In the history of Mongol, Genghis Khan is known as a national hero.
• The nomadic people were mainly non-vegetarians. They ate the meat of different animals like sheep, goat, etc. The main diet of the nomadic people was meat and milk.
• Silk clothes were imported from China, while woollen clothes were prepared by themselves. The rich used to wear expensive clothes while the dress of common people was very simple.
• Trade was also in practice and carried out with neighbouring countries.
• In 1209, Genghis Khan defeated Hsi, Hsia of China.
• Mongols occupied Otsar, Bukhara, Samarqand, Maru, Herat, Nishapur and Balkh between 1219 to 1222 CE.
• Genghis Khan organised his forces as per the old steppe system of decimal units. The important institution of Mongolian state was the army.
• Strict discipline was maintained in the army. The authority of the king could not be challenged.
• Civil system was based on the Ulus system.
• Yam was the military rank enjoyed by Mongols.
• Ogodei, Guyuk and Mongke were the successors of the Genghis Khan.
• Qubilai Khan was the founder of Yuan dynasty. He founded this dynasty in 1260 and ruled till 1294.
• The steppe inhabitants had no literature of their own. Most of our knowledge regarding the nomadic society was mainly derived from the chronicles, travelogues and documents produced by cities based literature.
• We find most significant information regarding the expansion of transcendental Mongol empire from Chinese, Mongolian, Persian, Arabic, Italian, Latin, French and Russian sources.
• Two most outstanding sources of Mongols are Igor de Rachewiltz’s ‘The Secret History of Mongol’ and ‘the Travelogues of Marco Polo’.

Important Terms:

• Barbarian: A person who is uncultured and behaves in a rough or cruel manner and is ignorant of good taste.
• Kiyat: A group of families related to the Boijigid clan
• Anda: Real or blood brother
• Confederacy: A union of states, groups of people or political with the same aim.
• Tuman: A group of ten thousand soldiers
• Noyan: Captain of army unit
• Naukar: Bonded man, a rank to common but intimate people
• Ulus: Conquered but not fixed territory
• Tama: Military contingents
• Quriltais: An assembly of chieftains
• Qubcur: A tax imposed on nomads for communication facility provided to them
• Yam: Courier system
• Qanat: Underground canal in the arid plateau in Iran
• Paiza: A pass or permit to move from one place to another.
• Bjg:A tax imposed on traders
• Yasa: A code of law promulgated by Genghis Khan in 1206.

      The Three Orders- Chapter 6

• Western European society was divided into three orders between the ninth and the sixteenth centuries.
• The three orders of the western society include:

1. The Clergy
2. The Nobility and
3. The Peasantry.

• Clergy enjoyed special status. They were exempted from paying taxes.
• The nobility also enjoyed a respectable position in the society. People belonging to the nobility were appointed on higher posts in administration, army and the church. They were also exempted from paying certain taxes.
• The peasantry had to pay heavy taxes and had to work very hard to meet their both ends.
• The most important characteristics of the middle age Western European society was the emergence of feudalism.
• Two sections of the third order were:

1. Free Peasants
2. Serfs.

• Free peasants had to deposit a fixed land revenue to the lords.
• Most of the Western European society belonged to the serfs. A lot of restrictions were imposed on them while the peasants were free from such restrictions.
• Serfs were denied to offer prayers in the church. They were ill-treated and forced to work nearly 12 to 16 hours a day. Feudalism is a German word. It stands for land or an estate. It was regarded as the main the pillar of the Medieval European society.
• Under feudalism, lords were granted their land in exchange for military services and personal loyalty.
• Feudalism originated in France. Later on it spread over to many other countries of Europe like England, Germany, Italy, Spain, Austria, etc.
• The church played a major role in influencing the Medieval European society.
• Pope was the supreme authority in the church’s institution.
• Some of the famous towns that came into prominence were Venice, Florence, Paris, London, Frankfurt, Milan, Amsterdam, etc.
• The word ‘monastery’ is derived from the Greek word ‘monos’ that means someone who lives alone.
• The drawbacks of the barter system were solved by the use of money.
• Benedict Monastery was established in 529 CE in Italy. St. Benedict laid the foundation of this monastery.
• Decline of feudalism in the 16 century paved the way for the rise of nation-state in Europe. French, German and Russian Revolutions occurred in 1789, 1848 and 1917 CE respectively. These revolutions inspired the people of the world also and gave a new way to the world.

Important terms:

• Tithe: A kind of tax collected by the church from the peasants in France. It was l/10th of the total produce.
• Manor: Dwelling area of the landlord.
• Fief: The land given by the lord to the knight.
• Pope: The supreme authority of the church
• Friars: A group of monks who moved from place to place, preaching to the people and living on charity.

Changing Cultural Traditions- Chapter 7

• Many significant changes took place in cultural traditions of Europe between 14th to 17th centuries.
• The church mainly influenced the life of people a lot. ‘
• Renaissance is a French word.
• Fall of feudalism, the religious wars between Christians and Muslims, commercial properties, etc. were the main reasons for the rise of Renaissance in Europe.
• Renaissance at first started in Italy. Then it started in Rome, Venice and Florence.
• In 1455, printing press was invented by Gutenberg.
• First printing press was set up by Caxton in 1477 in Europe.
• The invention of printing press increased the volume of books. It also helped in the spread of education.
• Milan, Naples, Venice and Florence gained the status of trade centers because of flourishing of trades.
• Humanism was one of the movements that started in Italy in 14th century.
• Petrarch is known as the ‘Father of Humanism’. He vehemently criticized the superstitions and lifestyle of clergy.
• Dante was an eminent poet and philosopher of Italy.
• Dante is known for his classics, The Divine Comedy.
• William Tyndale (1494-1536) translated the Bible into English in 1506.
• Boccaccio was the greatest writer and humanist.
• Decameron is a classic work of Giovanni Boccaccio. It is the collection of 180 stories.
• Leonardo-da-Vinci was one of the greatest painters. He was born in Florence in the year 1452.
• Mona Lisa’ and ‘The Last Supper’ were the most famous paintings of Leonardo-da-Vinci.
• Michelangelo was another great painter. His greatest painting was ‘The Last Judgement’.
• Nicholas Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Issac Newton were well-known scientists of the Renaissance period.
• The theory of the earth as a part of the sun centered system was made popular by Kepler’s Cosmographical Mystery.
• The revolution in science reached at its climax with Newton’s theory of gravitation.
• Aristocratic families dominated the way of life during 14th century medieval Europe.
• Social, political and economic life of people were deeply affected by Renaissance.
• Renaissance aroused the spirit of equality among the people and attacked on the superstitions and rituals prevailing in the society.
• Literature of Renaissance period brought about a great change in political thinking of the people.
• Reformation movement was a protest movement that took place in the 16th century against the church and the pope.
• Martin Luther wrote Ninety-Five Theses challenging the authority of the church.
• Nation-state received new power and vigour from Reformation.
• The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius Loyala in 1540. It made an attempt to combat Protestantism.

Important terms:

• Renaissance: A French word meaning rebirth.
• Renaissance man: A person with many interests and skills.
• Document of Indulgences: A document issued by the church which guaranteed a written promise to absolve the holder of all his sins.
• Humanism: A movement which gave priority to present life rather than life thereafter.

Confrontation of Cultures- Chapter 8

• During the 15th century, the geographical discoveries made by Europeans heralded the beginning of a new era.
• These geographical discoveries were mainly influenced by new scientific inventions, travelers’ accounts, political and religious motives, etc.
• In 1492, a Spanish sailor Christopher Columbus discovered America. Later on Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci came to South America in 1499.
• Economic motives gave a great impetus to European voyages and discoveries.
• The invention of compass in 1380 helped the sailors to sail independently in different directions.
• An Italian Amerigo Vespucci came to South America in 1499 and called it a New World.
• The Spanish took only two years to conquer Mexico. Cartes became the Captain General of New Spain in Mexico.
• Astrolab was invented which helped the sailors to look beyond the normal vision and also helped them to avoid the marine danger. Ptolemy’s geographical invention helped in locating places on the basis of latitudinal and longitudinal extents.
• The Arawaks lived mainly on agriculture, hunting and fishing. Corn, sweet potatoes, tubers, etc. were mainly grown by them.
• The Aztecs had migrated from the north into the central valley of Mexico in the 12th century.
• The Aztecs had established a very vast empire, which was spread over an area of 2 lakh sq. kilometers.
• Aztec rulers enjoyed supreme powers. Aztec women were given special status in the society.
• In the twelfth century, the first Inca, Manco Capac established his capital at Cuzco.
• Inca society was divided into many classes. The upper two classes enjoyed special privileges while the slave stood at the lowest level and were badly treated.
• The women were given respect in the Inca society.
• Inca society laid special emphasis on education.
• Men were imparted military and priestly training in Inca society. The people of Inca were inspired to live an honest and pious lifestyle.
• The Maya civilization was an important Mexican civilization which came into existence in 1500 BCE.
• The Mayan civilization reached at its peak during the period between 300 to 900 CF,.
• The important centers of Mayan civilization were Mexico, Honduras, El-Salvador and Guatemala.

Important terms:

• Cosmography: Science of mapping universe.
• Reconquista: It means reconquest.
• Capitulaciones: Agreement made by the Spanish rulers, who used to award the right to govern the newly acquired lands to the leaders of successful expeditions.
• Conquistadors: It refers to Spanish conquerors and their soldiers who established their empire in the new world.
• Quips: A system followed by Inca people which helped them in remembering things.

 The Industrial Revolution- Chapter 9

• Industrial revolution started in England and spread in different parts of the world gradually.
• The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used by European scholars-Georges Michelet in France and Fried-rich Engels in Germany.
• It was used for the first time in English by the philosopher and economist Arnold Toynbee to describe the changes that occurred in British industrial development between 1760 and 1820.
• The Industrial Revolution revolutionized the techniques and organization of production in the later half of the eighteenth century.
• England was both politically and economically a sound nation.
• Agricultural Revolution laid down the foundation of the Industrial Revolution.
• England had a huge domestic and international market under his control which helped in the growth of Industrial Revolution.
• England had a number of colonies in Asia, Africa and Europe. These helped in obtaining the raw material for industries.
• The onset of textile industry also helped in the emergence of Industrial Revolution.
• Abraham Darby brought about a revolution in the metallurgical industry.
• In the 1770’s, John Wilkinson made the first iron chairs and iron pipes of all sizes.
• Thomas Savery built a model of steam engine i.e. Miner’s friend in 1698.
• Another steam engine was built by Thomas New comen in 1712. The steam engine had been used only in coal mines until
• James Watt (1736-1819) developed his machine in 1769.
• In 1814, the railway engineer George Stephenson (1781-1848) constructed a locomotive called ‘The Blutcher’ that could pull a weight of 30 tons up a hill at 4 mph.
• The Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 banned children under 10 and women from working underground.
• The condition of workers was quite miserable. They became the victims of restlessness, epidemics and diseases.
• John Kay invented Flying Shuttle in 1733. By this invention the entire textile industry was revolutionized.
• James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny.
• Richard Arkwright invented water frame in the year 1709.

Important terms:

• Industrial Revolution: Use of machinery in industries and its effects on the English societies.
• Iron-Smelting Kilns: Blast furnace.
• Stapler: A small device used for putting staples into paper, etc.
• Sepoy: Indian soldier in the service of the British.
• Vagrant: A person without a settled home or regular work.
• Carding: A process prior to spinning cotton or wool.
• Orient: The countries to the east of Mediterranean.
• Luddism: A movement led by the charismatic General, Ned Ludd.

Displacing Indigenous Peoples- Chapter 10

• The American empires of Spain and Portugal did not expand after the 17th century.
• The countries like Holland, France and England began to expand their trading activities and to establish colonies in America, Africa and Asia after 17th century.
• The word ‘Settler’ is used for the Dutch in South Africa, the British in Ireland. New Zealand and Australia and the Europeans in America.
• The native people led a simple life. They did not claim their rights over land.
• The continent of North America extends from Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer and from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean.
• The inhabitants of North America used to live in groups before the advent of the Europeans.
• The original inhabitants of North America came from Asia about 30,000 years ago.
• The inhabitants of North America grew vegetables and maize. They ate fish and meat also.
• The people of North America believed in subsistence economy.
• People spoke numerous languages, but none of them is available to us in written form.
• Accounts of historical antecedents were recorded by each tribe.
• They used to transfer their historical knowledge orally to the next generation.
• Technique of clothes weaving was also known to the inhabitants.
• In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered the continent of America.
• News of discovery of gold and silver mines in America spread throughout the world.
• The Hopis were a native tribe who lived near California.
• Wampum belts are made of colored shells, sewn together.
• At the end of 18th century Canada came into existence.
• England had 13 colonies on the eastern coast of America.
• In the 1840’s, traces of gold were found in the USA, in California. It led to the ‘Gold Rush’, when thousands of Europeans hurried to America in the hope of making a quick fortune. It also led to the building of railway lines across the continent.
• British colonies in America declared a war against England in 1776 to gain independence.
• The War of Independence of the colonies continued till 1783.
• In 1860, the USA had an undeveloped economy. In 1890, it was the leading industrial power in the world.
• Invention of barbed wire in 1873 brought out revolution in American agriculture.
• The American President Abraham Lincoln played a key role in the abolition of the slavery.
• Explorer William Jansz of Dutch reached Australia in 1606.
• J. Tasman followed the route of William Jansz and named Tasmania after his name.
• J. Tasman discovered New Zealand.
• Another British explorer, James Cook reached the island of Botany Bay in 1770 and named it New South Wales.
• In Australia, economic prosperity of the mining industry played a crucial role.
• Canberra was declared the capital of Australia in 1911.
• The process of economic development enhanced with rearing of Marino sheep.

Important terms:

• Colonial: Belonging to a country that controls another country.
• Oral History: To write history or to dictate others so that it could have been recorded.
• Native: Citizens of the colonized countries. ‘The Hopis’ are California’s native tribes.
• Subsistence Economy: It means to produce as much as required for the fulfillment of their basic necessities.
• Settler: People who settle at a place of which they are not inhabitants.
• Wampum Belt: A belt made of colored shells.
• Indigenous people: People belonging naturally to a place.
• Multiculturalism: A policy that implies a treatment of equality for the cultures of native Europeans and Asian emigrants.
• Terra Nullius: A policy that implies recognizing no one’s right over a given piece of land.

Paths to Modernization- Chapter 11

• China and Japan present a marked physical contrast.
• China is a vast continental country with many climatic zones.
• China and Japan are situated in far East Asia.
• China dominated the East in the beginning of the 19th century.
• China is dominated by three major rivers. These rivers are Huang He, the Yangtse and the Pearl river.
• A large part of China is mountainous.
• The most dominant ethnic group of China is ‘Han’ and the major language is Chinese ‘Putonghua’.
• Chinese foods reflect the regional diversity. The best known is southern or cantonese cuisine.
• Japan was divided into more than 250 domains under the rule of lords called daimyo.
• Japan is situated in the Pacific ocean.
• Japan is a string of islands. It is an archipelago consisting of more than 3,000 islands. Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido are the four largest islands of Japan.
• Japan is also known as the ‘Land of Rising Sun’.
• The Shoguns made Edo, the capital of Japan.
• The tradition of animal rearing is not prevalent.
• Edo is modem Tokyo.
• Japanese emperor was known as Mikado.
• Uighur, Hui, Manchu and Tibetan are the other nationalities of the Chinese.
• The Samurai were warriors and helped the Shogun in running the administration.
• Printing was done with wood blocks in Japan. The Japanese were not interested in European printing.
• Edo, the capital city of Japan became the most populated city in the middle of the 17th century.
• The Meiji restoration is termed as one of the most momentous events in the Japanese history.
• In 1871, under Meiji’s rule feudalism was abolished.
• Tokyo University was established under the rule of Meiji in 1877.
• Military reforms were also introduced during Meiji rule.
• In 1872, modem banking institutions were launched.
• Under Meiji’s rule new constitution was introduced.
• In 1889, Japan adopted the new constitution.
• Miyake Setsurei was a well-known Japanese philosopher.
• Miyake Setsurei believed that every nation must develop its special talent in the interest of the world civilization.
• In Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95, China faced a humiliating defeat at the hands of Japanese.
• On April 17,1895, Treaty of Shimoneski was signed between China and Japan.
• Defeat of China at the hands of Japan made China vulnerable.
• The Chinese declared after the war that both China and Japan needed reforms for modernization.
• Sino-Japanese war served the basis for the Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902.
• Two opium wars were fought between China and England between 1839-42 and 1856-60 respectively.
• After the decline of Manchu empire, a republic was established in 1911 in China.
• In 1912, Dr. Sun Yat-sen formed a national party of China. It was known as Guomindang.
• The People’s Republic of China came into existence in 1949.
• In 1949, Communist Government was established in China and began a new age in the history of China.

Important terms:

• Soviet: Elected council of peasants and workers
• Daimyo: Lords of the domain under their possession.
• Shogun: Official title of sell-Taishogun.
• Zaibastu: Large business houses controlled by individual families.
• Triangular trade: Trade carried out among three countries.
• Comintern: Communist International
• Meiji: Enlightened rule
• Fukoku Kyohei: Government slogan given during Meiji period, which means rich country and strong army.
• Dim sum: Touch your heart.