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Chapter 8 : Post Mauryan Period

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Chapter 8 : Post Mauryan Period

Introduction

  • After the decline of Mauryas, the regional kingdoms were formed. Unlike Mauryas none of these regional kingdoms could extend their political authority over the large area equivalent to that of Mauryan Empire.
  • The downfall of Mauryas & their great empire witnessed rise of multiple regional kingdoms.
  • This period witnessed the clash, the rise and fall of a number of smaller kingdoms.
  • The native dynasties like Shungas, Satavahanas, and the Kanvas ruled in eastern India, central India and the Deccan region.
  • Foreigners like Indo-Greeks or Bactrians, Sakas, the Parthians and the Kushanas ruled in north-western India.

Corroborated by inscriptions and coins bearing the names of rulers, following literary texts act as sources of information about this period:

  • Puranas,
  • Dharmashastra; Manusmriti also known as ‘Manavdharmashastra’ is composed by Sage Manu and is first detailed lawbook available.
  • Gargi Samhita and the Mahabhashya of Patanjali (which is commentary on Panini’s Ashtadhyayi).
  • The Buddhist Jatakas, Divyavadana, Mahavastu and the Milindpanho (Sanskrit, Milindaprashna)
  • Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Banabhatta.
  • Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written by an anonymous Greek seafarer (pattern of trade between India and the Western world).
  • Also, the epigraphic records in Kharoshthi found in large numbers in Gandhara and Central Asia refer to different facets of India’s regular contacts with these regions

Evolution of Jatis

Since a long time ago, we’ve classified the people into different caste systems called jati. This differentiation is based on the work they perform. This determines their privilege, power, and their wealth. There are four jatis.

  • The Brahmanas are the top-most. They’re scholars or priests
  • The Kshatriyas they’re soldiers or political rulers
  • The Vaishyas were basically merchants
  • The Shudras they’re peasants, artisans, servants, and labourers

The caste system considers Shudras and untouchables. Society treats them as unclean and assumes they’ll pollute the environment.

Jati or the caste

  • The caste word came from the Portuguese or Spanish word ‘casta’ which means “breed, lineage, or race”
  • Portuguese used casta within the trendy sense after they used it for the hereditary Asian social teams referred to as ‘jati’ in India
  • Caste is interrelated with birth and where you’re born
  • According to Parker and Anderson, “Caste is a style of the socio-economic class organization during which the people’s position within the standing hierarchy is set by birth and descent”

Theories suggesting the origin of the Indian caste system

Several theories suggest the origin of caste in India.

Traditional theory

  • The traditional theory states that the class structure has a divine origin
  • These four came from the body parts of the god Brahma
  • Brahmins came from the head of Brahma, and this is why these are intellectuals and teachers
  • Kshatriyas, the rulers or the soldiers, came from the arms of Brahma
  • Then, Vaishyas from the thighs of Brahma. At last, the Shudras came from his feet
  • Brahma’s mouth signifies learning, preaching, etc., arms for protection. Things for business
  • And feet are to support the entire body. Thus, Shudras were meant to serve everyone. Later due to inter-caste marriages, the sub-castes came.

Political theory

  • According to political theory, the brahmins invented the caste system. And it’s a clever device
  • Works to put themselves on the first ladder of social hierarchy
  • According to Dr Ghurye, “Caste is a Brahminic child of Indo-Aryan culture cradled in the land of the Ganges and then transferred to other parts of India”
  • The concept of the spiritual merit of the king came from Brahmanas. This was to get the support of the land’s ruler.

Racial theory

  • The stratification of the caste of the society with its origin within the system of Chaturvarna
  • Namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Shudras, and Vaishyas
  • Rig Veda stresses terribly about the variations between the non-Aryans and Aryans
  • This difference is just not based on their colour but also on the way they speak: the way they worship and other features
  • The grouping system prevailing throughout the Vedic amount principally supported the division of occupation and labour
  • The categories are mentioned in rig Vedas. The Brahmans represent the poet and priest
  • The Kshatriya represents the warrior and chief. Vaishya includes common people. And shudra represents the domestic servant. Shudras is only mentioned once

Indian caste system

The caste system in India includes four castes, namely.

Brahmins

  • The Brahmins were regarded as the “priestly class” because they were priests and religious teachers
  • The priesthood at Hindu temples or during ceremonies and rites with songs and prayers was the traditional occupation of Brahmins
  • The Brahmins have the highest ritual position among the four classes, in theory. In Indian literature, the term Brahmin refers to a nice and ethical person, not merely a priest

Kshatriyas

  • The Kshatriyas are a major group of Hindu castes who live primarily in India’s northern part
  • Kshatra is a Sanskrit word that means “warrior.” The Rajputs, who historically formed the various royal houses of Rajasthan (ancient Rajputana) and nearby areas, are the most typical and well-known of these clans
  • Kshatriyas were the ancient Hindu society’s military and governing class, who first rose through the ranks based on their guna, behaviour (karma), and natural abilities (Swabhava)
  • It’s worth noting that some major personalities in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism were Kshatriyas, reflecting the group’s authority and status in ancient Indian society
  • The prominent religious figures Gautama Buddha and Mahavira (as well as Lord Rama and Lord Krishna) were all members of the same family

Vaishya

  • Vaishyas are the third caste in the caste structure
  • Agriculture, livestock care, trade, and other economic endeavours are the primary occupations of Vaishyas
  • Vaishyas were originally assigned to conventional agricultural and cattle-rearing occupations in Hindu holy texts, but with time they evolved into landlords, traders, and money-lenders
  • Because they desired to be born twice, the Vaishyas also focused on religious instruction
  • They shared the status of Dvjia with the higher two castes, Kshatriya and Brahmin, which means they were “born twice.” During the ceremony named Upanayanam, they achieve spiritual rebirth
  • Vaishyas were significant members of society, yet they were still an inferior caste.

Shudra

  • Shudras are known to be the lowest caste in the Indian caste system
  • Typically, they were artisans and labourers
  • The union of an upper caste and a Shudra produced a major share of this caste. Shudras were said to have existed to service the present rest classes, according to ancient writings
  • A Shudra’s job was to serve the twice-born, to engage in agriculture, trade, and cattle-breeding

Satavahana Dynasty 

Introduction

  • Satavahana Dynasty was an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan. The Satavahana was an important successor to the Mauryan Dynasty. Pratishthan, also known as Paithan, was the capital of the Satavahana kingdom. It is located on the banks of the river Godavari in the Aurangabad district.
  • The Satavahanas ruled for about 450 years. They were also referred to as Andhras in the Puranas. After the death of Ashoka, it was difficult for his successors to maintain the vast empire. Soon the provinces started to declare independence. As a result, the Mauryans lost hold over the North West, and it faced a series of foreign invasions. Kalinga declared independence, and the Satavahanas established their rule in the far south.

Satavahana Dynasty: Political History

  • Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty.
  • Simuka was followed by Krishna, under whom the kingdom was extended till Nasik.
  • Sri Satakarni was the third ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty.
  • He conquered Berar and western Malwa. He performed asvamedha’s sacrifices for his victory in the war.
  • The early Satavahana rulers were based in North Maharashtra, and their successors gradually extended their power over Andhra and Karnataka.
  • The Mauryas was succeeded immediately by the Shungas in the North. The last ruler of the Shunga Dynasty, Devabooti, was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva. Thus, Shungas were followed by Kanvas in the North. However, in Deccan and Central India, the Mauryas were succeeded by the natives, Satavahanas.
  • ‘Andhras’ mentioned in the Puranas are considered to be identical to the Satavahanas.
  • According to the Puranas, the Andhras are believed to have ruled for 300 years, which is assigned to the Satavahana Dynasty.
  • Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 106 – 130) is considered the greatest king of the Satavahana Dynasty. He defeated the Shakas and claimed that the Kshatriya ruler Nahapana was destroyed by him.
  • This is evident from the silver coins of Nahapana, which Gautamiputra Satakarni restricted. The Satavahana empire under him extended from Malwa in the North to Karnataka in the South. His achievements are mentioned in the Nasik inscription by his mother, Gautami Balasri. He called himself the only brahmana. He adopted the title Dakshina Pathapati.
  • Vashishtiputra Pulumayi (A.D. 130 – 154) was the immediate successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni. He extended the Dynasty up to the mouth of the river Krishna.
  • His coins and inscriptions were found in Andhra, and thus evident that around the second century, Andhra too came under Satavahana Dynasty.
  • He set up the capital of the Satavahana empire at Pratishthan in the district of Aurangabad.
  • Post Mauryan age was known for invasions from outside.
  • The successors of Vashishti Putra Pulumayi were Vashishtiputra Satakarni and Shivaskanda Satakarni.
  • Satavahanas were defeated twice by the Shaka ruler of Saurashtra, Rudradaman I.
  • Yajna Sri Satakarni ( A.D. 165 – 194) was one of the later rulers of the Dynasty.
  • He recaptured the North Konkan and Malwa from the Shakas.
  • His coins had ships represented, which shows his love for trade and navigation.
  • Hala was the seventeenth king of the Satavahana Dynasty.
  • He wrote a book called Gathasaptasati, which is also known as Sattasai.

Important Rulers of the Satavahana dynasty

Simuka

  • He is considered the founder of the Satavahana dynasty.
  • He became immediately active after Ashoka’s death.
  • Simuka is known to build Jain and Buddhist temples.

Satakarni I (70- 60 BC)

  • Satakarni I was the 3rd king of the Satavahanas.
  • He was the first Satavahana king to expand his empire through military conquests.
  • He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela.
  • He ruled over Madhya Pradesh.
  • He adopted the “Lord of Dakshinapatha” title after annexing the Godavari Valley.

Hala

  • King Hala compiled the Gatha Saptashati.
  • It is called Gaha Sattasai in Prakrit.
  • It is a collection of poems with mostly love as the theme.
  • Gunadhya, Hala’s minister, wrote Brihatkatha.

Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 – 130 AD or 86 – 110 AD)

  • Gautamiputra Satakarni is the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty.
  • The Satavahanas are believed to have once lost control of their lands in western India and the upper Deccan.
  • Gautamiputra Satkarni turned around the Satavahanas’ fortunes.
  • He claimed to be the sole Brahmana to have defeated the Shakas and destroyed numerous Kshatriya ruling systems.

Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (c. 130 – 154 CE)

  • Andhra contains the coins and inscriptions of Vashishthiputra Pulumayi.
  • He was Gautamiputra’s immediate successor. According to the Junagadh inscriptions, he was married to Rudradaman I’s the daughter.

Satavahana Dynasty: Administration

  • The administration of the Satavahana Dynasty was based on Dharmashastras.
  • The districts in the Satavahana Empire were known as Sahara, and their officials were known as mahamatras and amatyas.
  • Senapathi was appointed as the provincial governor.
  • The military regiment consisted of 25 horses, 9 chariots, 9 elephants, and 45 cavalries.
  • The head of the regiment was known as Gaulmika, who administered the rural areas.
  • The Satavahana rule was of a military character which is evident from using terms such as kataka and skandhavaras.
  • The kingdom had three grades of feudatories.
  • First grade was formed by the King (Raja)
  • Mahabhoja was formed in second grade.
  • Senapati formed the third grade.
  • The Brahmanas and Buddist monks were granted tax-free villages and cultivated fields, eventually becoming independent Islands within the kingdom.
  • Society was made stable by enforcing the Varna system.

Language

Most Satavahana coin legends and inscriptions are written in a Middle Indo-Aryan language. Some contemporary researchers have referred to this language as “Prakrit”; however, there is still debate regarding the reference language. The Satvahanas occasionally used Sanskrit in their political inscriptions. Moreover, the Satavahanas produced bilingual coins with Tamil on one side and Middle Indo-Aryan on the other.

Satavahana Dynasty: Society

  • Satavahana Dynasty followed a Patriarchal society, but some traces show Satavahanas followed a matrilineal structure.
  • It was a custom for the kings to be named after their mothers. This shows the importance given to women in the Satavahanas period.
  • The fourfold varna system was claimed to be established by Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Satavahana Dynasty: Economy

  • Trade and industry made remarkable progress during the Satavahana reign.
  • The merchants organised guilds to increase activity.
  • The rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty mostly issued lead coins and even copper. Bronze money was issued.
  • The art of paddy transplantation was known to the people of the Deccan.
  • The Krishna-Godavari doab was made into a great rice bowl for about two centuries.
  • Andhra was known for cotton production and its products.
  • There was an increasing trade evident from the Roman and Satavahana coins.

Satavahana Dynasty: Religion

  • The Satavahanas were brahmanas.
  • The kings and queens of the Satavahana Dynasty performed Ashvamedha Vajapeya (Horse sacrifice).
  • Vaishnava gods such as Krishna and Vasudeva were worshipped largely by the Satavahanas.
  • The rulers gave the Buddhist monks tax-free lands and promoted Buddhism.
  • Mahayana’s form of Buddhism was followed widely in the Satavahana Empire.
  • Under the reign of the Satavahana Dynasty, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati became the seat of Buddhist culture.

Satavahana Dynasty: Architecture

  • Chaitya and Vihara were the most common religious structures constructed by the Satavahana Dynasty.
  • Karle in western Deccan is the most famous chaitya constructed by Satavahanas.
  • Inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra are kept at three viharas in Nasik.
  • Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati are known for their independent Buddhist structures.

Facts about Satavahana Dynasty

  • The Sungas and the Kanvas replaced the Mauryas in the northern region. But, in Deccan and Central India, the Satavahanas (natives) returned the Mauryas.
  • It is believed that multiple small political principalities may have ruled in various regions of the Deccan after the Mauryas’ decline and before the arrival of the Satavahans (for about 100 years).
  • The Rathikas and Bhojikas of the Ashokan inscriptions evolved into the Maharathis and Mahabhojas of pre-Satavahana times.
  • The first native Indian kings to issue coins bearing their pictures were the Satavahanas.
  • After defeating the Western Satraps, Gautamiputra Satakarni adopted this method, which he had learned from them.
  • There were Prakrit legends on the coins. Several coin reverse legends are available in Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada.
  • More so than Sanskrit, Prakrit was patronised.
  • While being Hindus and claiming to be of Brahmanical stature, the monarchs also backed Buddhism.
  • They frequently engaged in combat with the Sakas and successfully defended their territories from outside invaders

Sunga Dynasty

Introduction

The Sunga Dynasty was an ancient dynasty established in the post-Mauryan period. The Sunga dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Sunga by overthrowing the Maurya dynasty in 185 BCE. There were ten rulers in the Sunga dynasty who in total ruled for about 112 years. Pataliputra was their capital city. One of the greatest achievements of the Sunga dynasty was safeguarding India from Hunas invasion.

Origin of Sunga Dynasty

  • Brihadratha Maurya, the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga who was his Commander-in-Chief.
  • Following the assassination, Pushyamitra Sunga succeeded to the throne in 185 BCE and established the Sunga dynasty which ruled over Magadha and the surrounding territories of the Maurya empire.
  • Some of the sources which furnish details about the Sunga dynasty are as follows:
    1. Gargi-Samhita
    2. The Divyavadana
    3. The Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa
    4. The Mahabhasya of Patanjali
    5. The Harshacharita of Banabhatta
    6. Dhanadeva-Ayodhya inscriptions
Important Rulers of the Sunga Dynasty

The Sunga dynasty had ten rulers who ruled from 185 BCE to 73 BCE.

Rulers of Sunga Dynasty Reign
Pushyamitra Sunga 185 – 149 BCE
Agnimitra 149 – 141 BCE
Vasujyestha 141 – 131 BCE
Vasumitra 131 – 124 BCE
Bhadraka 124 – 122 BCE
Pulindhaka 122 – 119 BCE
Ghosha 119 – 108 BCE
Vajramitra 108 – 94 BCE
Bhagabadra 94 – 83 BCE
Devabhuti 83 – 73 BCE

Some of the important rulers of the Sunga dynasty were:

Pushyamitra Sunga

  • He was the founder and the first ruler of the Sunga dynasty.
  • Pushyamitra Sunga ruled for about 36 years from 185 BCE to 149 BCE.
  • He was a follower of Brahmanism and said to have performed two ashwamedha sacrifices.
  • Pushyamitra Sunga fought against the Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded North India.
  • He also patronised Buddhist arts which is evident from the fact that Buddhist monuments at Sanchi and Bharhut were renovated during his reign. However some of the Buddhist texts such as Ashokavadana (part of Divyavadana) mentions that Buddhists were persecuted by Pushyamitra Sunga.

Agnimitra

  • Agnimitra succeeded Pushyamitra Sunga as the ruler of Sunga dynasty.
  • Vayu purana and Brahmanda Purana (Major Puranas of Hinduism) mention that Agnimitra ruled for about eight years from 149 BCE to 141 BCE.
  • Kalidasa in his play Malavikagnimitram mentioned that Agnimitra belonged to the Baimbika family while the Puranas claim that he belongs to the Shunga lineage.
  • It was mentioned in Malavikagnimitram that war broke out between Agnimitra and the ruler of Vidarbha, Yajnasena in which Sungas won.
  • Agnimitra was succeeded by his son Vasujyestha as the ruler of Sunga dynasty and he ruled from 141 BCE to 131 BCE.

Vasumitra

  • Vasumitra was the son of Agnimitra and half brother of Vasujyestha.
  • He succeeded Vasujyestha as the fourth ruler of the Sunga dynasty.
  • Matsya Purana, one of the eighteen major puranas of Hinduism and Bana’s Harshacharita mentioned him as Sumitra.
  • The play Malavikagnimitram mentions that Vasumitra was the guardian of the sacrificial horse which was let loose by Pushyamitra Sunga and said to have defeated the cavalry of Yona who were the Indo Greeks, on the banks of River Indus.
  • He was succeeded by Bhadraka in 124 BCE.

Devabhuti 

  • In 83 BCE Devabhuti succeeded to the throne after Bhagabadra who ruled from 94 BCE to 83 BCE.
  • He was the last ruler of the Sunga dynasty.
  • He was assassinated by his minister Vasudeva Kanva who later established the Kanva dynasty.

Cultural Contributions of the Sunga Dynasty

Some of the cultural contributions made by the rulers of the Sunga dynasty are as follows

  • Art, philosophy, education and other learning emerged during the reign of the Sunga dynasty.
  • The Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi and Bharhut stupas were renovated and expanded by the Sungas.
  • Sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis in standing positions belonging to the Sunga period were excavated from Gwalior and Mathura.
  • The Besnagar pillar inscription at Vidisha belongs to the Shunga period and the inscription was written using Brahmi script and Prakriti language.
  • Literary works composed during the Sunga period were
    1. Yoga Sutra and Mahahasya written by the sage Patanjali
    2. Malavikagnimitram play by Kalidasa

The Sunga dynasty was replaced by the Kanva dynasty with the assassination of Devabhuti by Vasudeva Kanva. The Sunga dynasty played an important role in patronising the art and culture of that time.

Influence of Sunga Dynasty

  • Sungas revived Brahmanism and Bhagavatam.
  • Along with the rise of Brahmanas, the caste system was also revived under Sungas. This is evident in Manusmriti, where Brahmin’s position is reassured in the 4 fold society.
  • The major development of Sungas was the emergence of mixed castes and the integration of foreigners into Indian society.
  • During the Sunga period, the Sanskrit language gained prominence and became the language of the court. Most of the Buddhist works were also composed in Sanskrit.
  • There was an increase in the use of human figures and symbols in art and architecture during the Sunga period.
  • Sunga art replaced Mauryan’s usage of wood with stone in the railings and gateways of Buddhist stupas.
  • Bharhut inscription exhibits the life of Indians and their attitude towards the world.
  • Temple building has begun during Sungas. One such notable example is the Vishnu temple at Vidisha.

Kanva Dynasty

The Kanva Dynasty, also known as the Kanvayana, ruled from 73 BCE to 28 BCE, eradicating the Shunga dynasty in some parts of eastern and central India. Vasudeva Kanva founded the Kanva dynasty in 73 BCE. Prior to the assassination of the previous emperor and the subsequent usurpation of the throne, Vasudeva served as a minister for the Shunga Emperor Devabhuti.

Kanva Dynasty-Historical Background

  • The Kanva dynasty, who were Brahmans by ancestry, reigned from 72 and 28 BCE.
  • They took over from the Shungas in the Magadha realm in northern India.
  • The designation Shungabhrityas given to them in the Puranas attests to the fact that they first served the Shunga line.
  • It is claimed that Vasudeva, the line’s originator, served Shunga Devabhumi (Devabhuti).
  • The Sanskrit author Bana, who lived in the 7th century, describes an assassination plan that lost Devabhumi his life and elevated Vasudeva to power in approximately 72 BCE. Devabhuti of the Shunga dynasty was assassinated by Vasudeva Kanva, who also founded the authority of the Kanva dynasty.

Kanva Dynasty-Rise to Power

  • The Kanva emperor permitted the Shunga dynasty kings to carry on their shadowy rule in a small region of their former realms.
  • Although Kanva Dynasty coins are mostly discovered in and around the region of Vidisha in Central India, which had also served as the capital of later Shunga rulers, the Puranic literature suggests that the Kanva Dynasty ruled from the former capital of the Shunga Empire in Pataliputra, Magadha in Eastern India.
  • The Satavahanas, according to the Puranas, ended their dynasty around 28 BCE.
  • The kanva ruler permitted the king of the sunga dynasty to continue ruling, but only in the sunga-ruled regions.
  • The province of eastern Malwa was subsumed under the Satavahana’s sphere of influence when the southern force drove out both the kanvas and Sungas.

Facts about Kanva Dynasty for UPSC

  • The Kanva Dynasty existed between 73 and 28 BC. Patliputra served as the Kanva dynasty’s capital.
  • The Kanvas were Brahmins who existed at the time of the diminished Magadha Empire.
  • Parts of the Gangetic fields were ruled by various peoples, while the Greeks ruled the Northwest sector.
  • The Satavahana (Andhra) king slew the final Kanva lord Susarman.
  • The Puranas mention four distinct lords of the Kanva tradition: Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana, and Susarman.
  • The Kanva Dynasty continued for a total of 45 years.

Kanva Dynasty-Notable Rulers

  • Vasudeva Kanva, the minister of Devabhuti, the last Sunga monarch, established the Brahmin dynasty of the Kanva. Kanva Dynasty rulers are:
    • Vasudeva
    • Bhumimitra
    • Narayana
    • Susarman
  • Vasudeva was the first emperor of the Kanva dynasty, named for his Gotra. His son Bhumimitra took his place as successor.
  • After fourteen years in power, Bhumimitra was replaced by his son Narayana. Twelve years were controlled by Narayana. His son Susharman, the final ruler of the Kanva dynasty, succeeded him.
Emperor Reign (BCE) Notable Achievements
Vasudeva Kanva 73–64 BCE
  • Vasudeva, after whose Gotra the dynasty was named, was the first ruler of the Kanva dynasty.
  • His son Bhumimitra took his place as successor.
Bhumimitra 64–50 BCE
  • Coins from the Panchala kingdom have been found with the legend Bhumimitra on them.
  • Additionally, copper coins from Vidisha and Kaushambi in the Vatsa kingdom have been discovered, both of which have the legend “Kanvasya.”
Narayana 50–38 BCE
  • After fourteen years in power, Bhumimitra was replaced by his son Narayana who controlled the region for 12 years.
  • His son Susharman, the final ruler of the Kanva dynasty, succeeded him.
Susarman 38–28 BCE
  • The final king of this dynasty, Susarman, reigned for ten years. Simuk, the satavahana king, murdered him. Magadh itself came under the control of the Mitra Dynasty with the collapse of the Kanvas.
  • Some academics contend that a Satavahana dynasty successor to Simuka deposed the final Kanva emperor Susharman.

Kanva Dynasty-Wars and Conquests

  • The powerful family that produced Mitradeva, who killed Prince Sumitra, is known in history as the Kanvas, or Kanvayanas.
  • Similar to how the Mahratta rajas were puppets in the hands of the Peshwas, the later Sunga rulers had little actual authority and were controlled by their Brahman ministers.
  • Vasudeva, the first Kanva, killed the last Sunga, making him the final Sunga.
  • Three of Vasudeva’s descendants succeeded him when he usurped the throne that had become vacant as a result of his crime.
  • Only forty-five years make up the whole dynasty.
  • A ruler of the Andhra, or Satavahana, dynasty, which at the time had vast dominions spanning over the tableland of the Deccan from sea to sea, slew the last of them in 27 B.C.
  • The Puranas view the whole Andhra dynasty as descended from the Kanva, and as a result, they link Simuka, or Sipraka, the first of the Andhra line, to the murder of the last Kanva prince.
  • The Puranas claim that Balipuccha, who started the Andhra dynasty, killed the final ruler of the Kanva dynasty.

Kanva Dynasty-The Fall

The Puranas claim that Balipuccha, who started the Andhra dynasty, assassinated the final ruler of the Kanva dynasty. The Satavahana dynasty’s defeat of the Kanva dynasty was a regional occurrence in Central India. However, numismatic and epigraphic evidence suggests that from the first century BCE to the second century CE, the Mitra dynasty of Kaushambi ruled over Magadha itself.

INDO-GREEKS (200 BC – 100 CE)

  • Indo-Greeks were the Greek people who got settled in India and became localised over a period of time.
  • Indo- Greek rule in India had 3 branches, namely, Bactria i.e., North Afghanistan, Taxila (Takshashila) and Sakal or Sialkot which is now in Pakistan.
  • An ambassador from the Taxila branch, Heliodorus was sent to court of King of Vidisha.
  • Heliodorus got a stone pillar constructed in Greek style (different from Asokan style) which was dedicated to Lord Vasudeva.
  • Demetrious and Menander or Milind are two significant rulers mentioned from Sakal or Sialkot branch of Indo-Greek.
  • Menander or Milind (165 BC – 145 BC) adopted Buddhism under Nagasen who wrote “MILINDPANHO” in Sanskrit. This book is a great source of history of this age.
  • This branch also caused a lot of trouble to the kings of Ganga Valley i.e., Mauryans and Shungas.
  • Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins bearing inscriptions of images of Kings and Gods. India learned Use of curtain (yavan) from Greeks. Greek term horoscope was derived from the term horasastra. They introduced practice of governorship.
  • Adopting Indian social and religious way of life they got indigenised.
  • Growth of metallurgy, medicine, astronomy, stone-cutting, perfume-making are evidences of technical advancements under Indo-Greeks.
  • Patronising both Buddhism and Hinduism, the greatest contribution of Indo-Greeks is witnessed in development of Gandhara School of Art.
    • In this, Greek techniques are applied over Buddhist themes and it is also known as Greeko-Buddhist Art.
    • Taxila, Peshawar, Bactria, Bamiyan, Hadda; in Afghanistan; Baigram (Kashmir) were important sites of development of this school of art.
    • Muscular body, beard and moustache are seen in the images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Images of Greek Gods and Kings too are reported.
    • Use of grey sandstone, outer robe (Roman influence), facial images and andromorphic (human form) God (Greek influence) is evident in the Gandhara School of Art.
  

PARTHIANS
  • At the end of 100 BC few kings with Iranian names like Pahlavas of Indo-Parthians, captured north-western India.
  • In the reign of Gondophernes (the most significant of the Indo-Parthians) St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SAKAS

(100 BC – 150 CE)

 
  • Sakas who were also known as Scythians, were from Western China.
  • The first Shaka king was Maues or Moga (approx 80 BC) who is known from inscriptions and a series of coins.
  • Mathura, Ujjain and Girnar were centres of Saka rulers in north India.
  • They ruled in capacity of ‘Satrapas’ i.e., governors and Mahasatrapas.
  • With control over western Ganga valley, parts of central India and Gujrat, Sakas were almost always at war with Satvahanas and put pressure over Deccan region.
  • Rudradaman (130 CE – 150 CE) of Ujjain centre of Sakas is of significance as he finds mention in Junagarh inscription.
  • This inscription is in Sanskrit unlike previous Prakrit inscriptions.
  • Rudradaman got the lake Sudarshan repaired for better irrigation (constructed during the time of Chandragupta Maurya).
  • Bhumak and Nahapan of Girnar centre of Sakas, had their coins spread over many places in western India.
  • Huge number and great variety of silver coins are reported from western India that are attributed to the Sakas.
  • Patronising Indian art and culture many of the Saka rulers got themselves Indianized.
  • Important centre of development of art were Sanchi, Mathura and Gandhar.
  • The King of Ujjain defeated Sakas and assumed the title of ‘Vikramaditya’ and estd. the Vikram Samvat or era in 58 CE.
  

 

 

 

KUSHANAS

(50 CE – 230 CE)

 
  • Kushanas (or Yueh-Chis) too were from China, they ruled in North-West India with Purushpur (Peshawar) as their capital.
  • Kanishka, a Mahayan Buddhist, was the most important Kushana ruler.
  • Wem Kadphises, Huviska and Vasiska were other important Kushana rulers in India.
  • The 4th Buddhist council at Kundalvan Vihar (Kashmir) with Vasumitra as president was held during Kanishka’s reign.
  • Ashwaghosh was vice-president of this Mahayan Buddhist council.
  • “Buddha Charita” i.e., biography of Buddha, was composed by Ashwaghosh of Patliputra.
  • Nagarjuna propounded the Madhyamika Philosophy of Mahayan Buddhism.
  • Nagarjuna also discussed the idea of relativity and hence, is sometimes called as Einstein of India.
  • In 78 CE, the Saka era was founded by Kanishka.
  • Ruling over the regions of Silk route, Kushanas greatly benefitted from it.
  • They issued gold standard coins (22 or 23 carats).
  • Processing of the imported Chinese raw silk at Bharoch in Gujrat helped it in becoming an important trading centre.
  • Greater use saddle in horse riding, armour, turbans, trouser, helmets, long coats and better cavalry are Kushana’s contributions.
  • Introduced Satrap system – Empire was divided into Satrapies under the Satrap.

Saka Era – The Shakas

The Saka Era was probably established by King Maeus around the second century A.D. The Shakas who were also known as the Indo-Scythians were a group of Iranian nomadic people who invaded India by destroying the Indo-Greeks in North-West India.

  • The Shakas brought the larger part of the country under their control.
  • The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman who ruled from 130 A.D to 150 A.D.
  • There were five branches of Shakas who settled and established rule in different regions of North and North-Western parts of the Indian subcontinent.
  • The Saka era came to an end with the defeat of the last Shaka ruler, Rudrasimha III by Chandragupta-II of the Gupta dynasty.

Origin Of the Saka Era

  • In and around the 2nd century B.C, the central Asian nomadic people called ‘Yueh-chi’ or ‘Yuezhi’ pushed the Shakas out of their homes and forced them to invade India from the north western border of present day China. The descendants in later times came to be known as Kushana.
  • The Shakas invaded Parthia and Bactria and they defeated the Parthian King. This encouraged them to move further into India.
  • Maeus was the first to establish the Indo-Scythian rule in India.
  • The Shakas were divided into 5 distinctive branches and they established the rule by settling in North and North-Western parts of the Indian subcontinent.
  • The five branches of the Shakas settled in the following places,
    1. Afghanistan
    2. Punjab with Taxila as capital
    3. Mathura
    4. Western India
    5. Upper Deccan with Ujian as their capital.
  • Among all these distinctive branches of Shakas the Central and Western Indian branches reached prominence and managed to rule India longer than other Shaka rulers.

Saka Era

Important Rulers Of the Saka Era

Maues

  • King Maues was also called King Moga.
  • He takes the credit to be the earliest Shaka or Indo-Scythian ruler in India and he established the Shaka rule over the Gandhara region which is the present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan region.
  • King Moga made Sirkap (in present-day Punjab, Pakistan) his capital.
  • He led many failed invasions against the Indo-Greeks beyond the Jhelum river.
  • He issued a great number of copper coins and comparatively fewer silver coins during his reign.
  • The languages used in his coins were Greek and Kharosthi scripts.
  • The coins also bear the images and symbols of the Indian deities of Buddhist and Hindu religions.
  • The famous Taxila copper plate belongs to Shaka King Moga’s inscriptions and it contains precise information written in Kharosthi script.

Azes I

  • Maues was succeeded by his son Azezs the first.
  • Azes – I was the one who actually put an end to Indo-Greek rule in India.
  • He defeated the Graeco-Indian king Hippostratos after a prolonged struggle and added the remnants to the Shaka Empire.
  • He started the Azes era in 58 BC which coincides with the famous Vikrama Era in India.

 Azilises And Azes II

  • The successor of Azes-I was Azilises and he was succeeded by Azes-II.
  • Some coins were issued jointly by Aziliases and Azez-II.
  • Azes-II is considered to be the last great ruler of the Shaka dynasty of this era after they lost to the Kushan Empire.

Nahapana

  • The Shaka Empire once again rose to prominence under King Nahapana.
  • His mention in various inscriptions of Maharashtra and Satavahans stands as proof of his prominence in the central and western satrap regions.
  • He is the instigator of one of the two great Shaka Kshatrapa dynasties in North and North-Western India called the ‘Kshaharatas dynasty’.
  • Later he was defeated by king Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty

Chashtana

  • Nahapana was succeeded by King Chashtana.
  • Western Kshatrapas or Satraps were ruled over by the Shaka King Chashtana with Ujjain as his capital.
  • Ptolemy praised and referred to him as ‘Testenes’ or ‘Tiasthenes’.
  • Following Nahapana he was the instigator of the other great dynasty in North and North-Western India called ‘Bhadramukhas dynasty’.

Rudradaman I

  • Rudradaman I is the grandson of Shaka king Nahapana.
  • He is considered to be the greatest and most illustrious ruler of all Shaka Rulers.
  • He made his capital Ujjain a great cultural and educational center.
  • He assumed the title ‘Makakshatrapa’ after being crowned the King.
  • Rudradaman I is known as the reformer of Sanskrit arts and literature.
  • He is also the first ruler to issue a long inscription written in Sanskrit which was usually written in Prakrit during this period.
  • His most known contribution is the repair work of Sudarshana lake located in the Kathiawar district built by Chandragupta Maurya.
  • He built the Junagarh rock inscription and according to this inscription he reigned over the vast Western satrap dynasty which includes Kathiawar, Narmada valley, Konkan and parts of Malwa(except Pune and Nasik) and also Gujarat.
  • He had converted to Hinduism after being married to a Hindu woman.
  • He reclaimed most of the territories lost under the Nahapana rule lost to Satavahanas through conquest.
  • Though he fought numerous wars with the Satavahanas, he also established and maintained a marital relationship with them by marrying his daughter to Vashishtiputra Satakarni, King of the Satavahana Dynasty.
  • The Greek writer Yavanasvera lived and translated one of the first books of Indian Astrology ‘Yavanajataka’ (‘Sayings of Greeks’) from Greek to Sanskrit under his regime.

Decline Of Saka Era

  • The downfall of the Shaka empire in Gandara region (north western Pakistan) started during the reign of Azes-II after a defeat from the Kushan Empire.
  • Another major blow to the Shaka supremacy in the Indian subcontinent came from the ruler of Satavahana Empire, Gautamiputra Satakarni.
  • Finally the Shakas were wiped off and made to shrink into a small regional kingdom by Chandragupta-II of Gupta Empire who defeated the last of the Shaka rulers of western satrap region, Rudrasimha III.

Kushan Empire

The Kushan Empire was probably one of the five branches of the Yuezhi confederation who were the ancient nomadic people of Central Asia. The Kushan empire lasted till 350 CE.

  • In the period 200 B.C. i.e. in the post-Mauryan period there was no big empire like that of the Mauryan empire. Several native rulers such as Shungas, Kanvas, and Satavahanas succeeded the Mauryans in Eastern, central and Deccan India.
  • The North Western portion of India was succeeded by several dynasties which came from Central Asia. The Kushan empire was one such empire which became very famous.
  • The Kushans were the origins of China. The rulers of the Kushan dynasty defeated the Parthians and Shakas and moved into India.

Origin of Kushan Empire

  • The rulers of the Kushan empire were a branch of the Yeuchi tribe belonging to Central Asia.
  • They were the nomadic people from the steppers who were living in the neighbourhood of China
  • They first displaced the Sakas and occupied Bactria (North Afghanistan)
  • Gradually they moved to the Kabul valley and replaced the Greeks and Parthians in the Gandhara region and captured Gandhara.
  • Greater part of the Gangetic basin and lower Indus basin were occupied by them.
  • The Kushan empire extended from Khorasan in central Asia to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.

Rulers of the Kushan Empire

The Kushan empire in India had two successive dynasties. The first dynasty was the house of Chiefs called Kadphises and they were followed by the house of Kanishka.

Kushan Empire – Kujula Kadphises (30 CE – 80 CE)

  • Kujula Kadphises was the Kadphises I
  • He was the first Kushan ruler who laid the foundation for the Kushan empire in India.
  • Epithet of Dharma-thida was adopted by him.
  • Kadphises I established supremacy over Kabul, Afghanistan and Kandahar.
  • He minted copper coins which were the imitation of Roman coins

Kushan Empire – Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (80 CE – 95 CE)

  • It is not sure that whether Vima Taktu or Sadashkhana succeeded the throne after Kujula Kadphises
  • The Kushan empire expanded into the northwest region of South Asia under his reign.

Kushan Empire – Vima Kadphises (95 CE – 127 CE)

  • Rabatak inscription mentions that Vima Kadphises was the son of Sadakshana and father of Kanishka
  • He was the Kadphises II
  • He issued a large number of gold coins during his period
  • He expanded the Kushan Kingdom to the East of the Indus.

Kushan Empire – Kanishka (127 CE – 150 CE)

  • Kanishka was the most famous Kushan ruler
  • He started an era known as Shaka era in 78 CE which is used now by the Government of India.
  • Purushapura and Mathura were the two capitals of the Kushan empire during Kanishka’s reign.
  • Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and Punjab were under the Kushan empire during his accession to the throne. He later conquered Magadha and extended the Mauryan empire as far as Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya.
  • In his first expedition, he fought against the Chinese and suffered defeat at the hands of Chinese general Panchao.
  • He ruled over an extensive area from Central Asia to Pataliputra.
  • He was a great patron of religion and art.
  • Information about Kanishka’s reign is given in the Rabatak inscription which is in Afghanistan

Kanishka and Buddhism

  • Kanishka extended wholehearted patronage to Buddhism.
  • He convened the fourth Buddhist council in Kundalavan, Kashmir in 78 AD
  • Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana forms of Buddhism during his times.
  • He was an ardent follower of the Mahayana form of Buddhism
  • Though he followed Buddhism, he was tolerant of all religions.
  • Missionaries were sent by Kaniska to China and Central Asia in order to spread Buddhism.

Administration Of Kushan Empire

  • Kushans held supremacy over several small princes who paid them tributes and Kushans called themselves the King of Kings
  • Rulers of the Kushan dynasty were known as Sons of God
  • They introduced the Satrap system of government in which the entire empire was divided into several satrapies and each of them was placed under a Satrap.
  • The hereditary dual rule in which two kings ruled at the same time was practised.

Contributions Of the Kushan Empire

  • Kushans were excellent horsemen. They introduced better cavalry in India
  • Kushans and Shakas introduced turban, tunics, trousers and heavy long coats
  • The Sanskrit literature began to develop under the reign of the Kushan dynasty
  • The silk route was controlled by the rulers of the Kushan empire. It was their major source of income.
  • They were the first rulers in India to issue a large number of gold coins.
  • Agriculture was promoted by them.
  • Masons and artists from different parts of the world were brought to the Kushan empire which in turn gave rise to schools of art such as Mathura, Gandhara and Central Asian.
  • Great writers such as Ashvagosha, Vasumitra, and Nagarjuna enjoyed the patronage of the Kushan dynasty.

Decline Of Kushan Empire

  • Vashiska succeeded Kanishka on the throne. He was the son of Kaniska.
  • The successors of Kaniska continued to rule till 230 A.D.
  • By the mid of third century, Afghanistan and the area west of the Indus which were under the Kushan empire was taken over by the Sassanian power of Iran.
  • With the death of the last great ruler Vasudeva I of the dynasty, the entire Kushan empire disintegrated.

Persian and Greek Invasions of India

The Persian and Greek invasion of India was an important event in Indian history which had far reaching consequences. The Persian and Greek invasion of India began in the Sixth Century B.C. when the North-west region of India was fragmented and small principalities such as Gandhara, Kamboja were fighting over each other. Since it was easy to enter India via the passes in Hindukush, many foreign invasions began to happen in the Northwest Frontier of India.

The Persians were the first to invade India and were followed by the Greeks. The Persian invasion of India took place in two phases. The first phase was carried out by Cyrus around 535 BCE and the second phase by Darius in 518 BCE. The Greek invasion of India was carried out by a famous ruler, Alexander.

Persian Invasion of India

  • In the Sixth Century B.C. the Persians began their eastward and westward invasions.
  • The North western part of India which was wealthy did not have any powerful kingdom like Magadha to bring the entire region under one organised Kingdom. There were many small principalities who were fighting with each other.
  • The Achaemenid rulers of Iran (Persians) took advantage of the political disunity in the region and began their invasions.

Cyrus 

  • Cyrus was the founder of the Achaemenid empire in Iran.
  • The Persian invasion of India was first led by him.
  • He invaded the Indian borderland and captured the Gandhara region.
  • Cyrus invaded as far as the river Indus and the Indian tribes living to the west of the river submitted to him.
  • Behistun Inscription mentions that all the region conquered by Cyrus in India was brought under the satrapy of Gandhara. (Satrapy means province and Satrap was the provincial governor in ancient Persian empire)

Darius

  • Cyrus’ son Cambyses paid no attention towards India. Thus the grandson of Cyrus, Darius I conquered the Indus valley in 516 B.C.
  • Punjab, West of Indus and Sindh were annexed by Darius and these areas constituted the 20th satrap of Iran.This area became the most fertile area of the Persian empire.
  • 360 talents of gold was paid as a tribute to the Persian empire which constituted one third of their revenue from Asian provinces.
  • The Indians were employed in the Persian army
  • Darius explored the Indus by sending a naval expedition under Skylax.

Xerxes

  • Indian Provinces were used by him to strengthen his positions
  • Indian Cavalry and Infantry who were sent to Greece to fight his opponents retreated after the defeat of Xerxes.
  • With this failure, the forward policy of Persians was hampered in India.

Effects of the Persian Invasion

  • This contact lasted for about 200 years and thus resulted in the Indo – Iranian trade and commerce. It is evident from the Iranian coins found in the northwest Frontier of India.
  • The Kharoshthi script which was written from right to left was an Iranian form of writing and was introduced in India by the Iranian scribes.
  • Mauryan sculptures and monuments, particularly those of Ashoka’s time were heavily influenced by the Iranian models.
  • The idea of issuing edicts and the terms used on them traced to have the Persian influence.
  • The Greeks came to know about India and its wealth from the Persians which paved the way for the Greek invasion of India.

Greek Invasion of India

Alexander’s Invasion

    1. Alexander succeeded his father Philip to the throne in 334 B.C.
    2. In the Fourth century B.C. the Persians got into war with the Greeks.
    3. The Greeks under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia defeated the Persian empire and conquered Asia, Iran and Iraq.
    4. In the Battle of Arbela, he defeated Darius III and conquered the entire Persia.
    5. He was attracted by the wealth of India.
    6. It was also believed that there was a continuation of sea to the East of India which made him believe that by conquering India, the Eastern boundary of the world would be Conquered.
    7. Thus from Iran he moved towards Kabul and from there via Khyber pass he marched into India.
    8. The entire North India was divided into so many independent monarchies and tribal republics which favoured the intentions of Alexander.
  • Battle of Hydaspes:
    1. Porus refused to submit his kingdom to Alexander and this led to a battle between them.
    2. The Battle of Hydaspes was fought on the plains of Karri and Porus lost the battle.
    3. Alexander was impressed by the courage of Porus and restored him back to his throne.
  • He marched and conquered the areas as far as the river Beas.
  • The soldiers grew tired of war and refused to fight. Thus Alexander was forced to retreat and he decided to return home with his soldiers.
  • Most of the states were restored back to the rulers who accepted his sovereignty. The remaining areas of his possessions were divided into three and were placed under three Greek governors.
  • On his way back, he fell ill and died at Babylon in 323 B.C.