Chapter 5 : Buddhism

Introduction

In the sixth century BCE, the socio-religious norms that were well established & followed were criticised by the then great scholars like Confucius in China, Zoroaster in Iran, Parmenides in Greece. They laid emphasis on ethical and moral values. India also witnessed the emergence of two alternate religions – Buddhism & Jainism. Both these religions believed and propagated non-violence, good social conduct, charity & generosity. These religions emphasised that true happiness does not lie in materialism or performance of rituals.

Where does the Origin of Buddhism Lie?

• Buddhism started in India over 2,600 years ago as a way life that had a potential of transforming a person.
  • It is one of the important religions of South and South-Eastern Asian countries.
• The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born in circa 563 BCE.
  • He was born into royal family of Sakya clan who ruled from Kapilvastu, in Lumbini which is situated near the Indo-Nepal Border.
• At the age of 29, Gautama left home and rejected his life of riches and embraced a lifestyle of asceticism, or extreme self-discipline.
  • After 49 consecutive days of meditation, Gautama attained Bodhi (enlightenment) under a pipal tree at Bodhgaya, a village in Bihar.
• Buddha gave his first sermon in the village of Sarnath, near the city of Benares in UP. This event is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law).
  • He died at the age of 80 in 483 BCE at a place called Kushinagara a town in UP. The event is known as Mahaparinibban.

The Buddha – Biography

Hagiography

The Gautama Buddha was born to Suddhodana (chief of republican Sakya clan) as Siddhartha in 563 BCE on Vaishakha Poornima day at Lumbini (Nepal). He lost his mother (Mahamaya) just a few days after his birth and was brought up by his stepmother Gautami. There were 32 birthmarks on his body and Brahmanas predicted that either he would be a world conqueror or a world renouncer. He lived a life of luxury and comfort in his early years.

•  He was married to Yashodhara at the early age of 16 and had a son named Rahula. At the age of 29, he left his palace and decided to become a wanderer. He along with Channa, his charioteer and his horse, Kanthaka, wandered for six long years in search of truth (Mahabhinishkramana/Great Renunciation).
• He first meditated with Alara Kalama and then Uddaka Ramaputta. They were considered to be the established teachers of that era but he was not convinced with their teachings that liberation from sorrow can be obtained by mental discipline and knowledge only.
• The Buddha later joined five wandering ascetics – Assaji, Mahanama, Vappa, Bhaddiya and Kondanna. He practised severe austerities until his body was almost emaciated and realising that austerities could not lead to realisation, he left them. He then moved towards the village of Senani and took a seat under a peepal tree facing east. He then resolved not to rise until enlightenment was achieved.
• As Gautama sat in deep meditation – Mara, the Lord of illusions, recognising that his power was about to be broken, tried to distract him. The Buddha touched the earth, calling it to bear witness to the countless lifetimes of virtue that had led him to this place of enlightenment. The earth shook, on hearing the truth of Gautama’s words. Mara then unleashed his army of demons. In the epic battle that ensued, Gautama’s wisdom broke through the illusions and the power of his compassion transformed the demon’s weapons into flowers. Mara and his army fled in disarray. Thus, at the age of 35, he ultimately attained Nirvana/enlightenment at Gaya, Magadha (Bihar) under a peepal tree (Bodhi tree), on the banks of river Niranjana and came to be known as the Buddha – the Enlightened One. It is believed that Ashoka’s queen was envious of the Bodhi tree, and tried to kill it but it grew again. The tree was cut down many times, but it grew again at the same place and is still revered by Buddhists.
• The Buddha delivered his first sermon on deliverance from sufferings to his five former companions at Sarnath. This event is known as Dhamma Chakka-Pavattana, which means turning the wheel of dharma. The Buddha wandered about for over four decades, and established an order of monks and nuns known as Sangha. He attained Parinirvana at the age of 80 at Kusinara (of the Mallas). His last words were “All composite things decay, strive diligently”.
• The five forms that represent Buddha are:

Rise of Buddhism

The various causes that led to the growth of this religion are as follows:

Moment Influence

• The 6th century B.C. was a perfect time for Buddhism to spread.
• People were fed up with superstitions, complicated rituals and rites, and blind beliefs during the time.
• The Buddha’s message was a great respite to those who were already suffering under the oppressive weight of Brahmanism.

Simple Doctrines

• Buddhism was essentially simple in comparison to Jainism.
• The people were not perplexed. Rather, its ‘Arya Satya,’ ‘Eightfold Path,’ and ‘idea of non-violence’ were so straightforward that anyone could understand and follow them.
• Buddhism lacked the strictness of Jainism and the complexity of Vedic ceremonies.
• People who had grown tired of Brahminical manipulations of the Vedic religion found Buddhism to be a peaceful and refreshing shift.

Simple Expressions

• The Buddha communicated his message to the masses in common people’s vernacular. The Prakrit language utilised by Buddha was India’s spoken language.
•  The Vedic religion could only be understood because of the Brahmins’ stranglehold on the Sanskrit language.
• Buddhism was simple to comprehend, and people accepted it after being persuaded by its simple philosophy and appealing message.

Buddha’s Personality 

• The Buddha’s personality endeared him and his faith to the public. The Buddha was kind and selfless.
• The masses were drawn to him by his calm demeanour, lovely words of a simple philosophy, and life of renunciation.
• He had moral solutions to people’s problems. As a result, Buddhism expanded quickly.

Buddhism was inexpensive because it lacked the costly rites that typified the Vedic religion.

•  Practical morality, rather than ceremonies and costly rituals, became its guiding element, assisting in the establishment of a healthy social tradition.
• It promoted a spiritual path free of material duties such as ceremonies and offerings to appease gods and Brahmins.

No Caste Discrimination

• Buddhism did not believe in castes. It was anti-caste and treated people from all castes equally.
• Its adherents met together, caste aside, and discussed ethics and morals. Non-Brahmins in particular were attracted to it.

Royal Support

• Buddhism’s quick development was aided by royal patronage.
• The Buddha was a Kshatriya prince himself. Buddhism was patronised by kings like Prasenjit, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Asoka, Kanishka, and Harshavardhan, who helped it grow throughout India and beyond.
• Asoka sent Mahendra and Sanghamitra, two of his sons, to Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism.
• Kanishka and Harshavardhan dedicated their lives to spreading Buddhism across India.

Influence of Universities

• Universities at Nalanda, Taxila, Puspagiri, and Vikramsila played a significant role in the spread of Buddhism.
• Students studying in these institutes from all over India and from other countries were drawn to Buddhism and embraced it.
• Hiuen Tsang, the renowned Chinese pilgrim, was a student at Nalanda University. His teachers included Shilavadra, Dharmapala, Chandrapala, and Divakamitra, all of whom were prominent intellectuals dedicated to the development of Buddhism.

Buddhist Monks and the Buddhist ‘Order’ (Sangha)

• Buddhist monks and the Buddhist ‘Order’ (Sangha) rendered unparalleled assistance to the propagation of Buddhism. Ananda, Sariputta, Maudgalayana, Sudatta, and Upali, among others, were prominent among Buddha’s students.
• They were adamant in their desire to promote Buddhism throughout India.
• The Buddhist sangha grew throughout India, with branches all over the country. Locals were quickly drawn to these Buddhist ‘Order’ branches.
• They led ascetic lifestyles as either monk (bhikshu) or lay devotees (Upasakas). Their example prompted an increasing number of people to emulate it. As a result, Buddhism spread quickly.

Buddhist Councils

• Buddhist Councils were crucial in the teaching and spreading of Buddhism in India.
• After the death of Buddha, 4 Buddhist Councils were held.

Doctrines of Buddhism

The core of Buddha’s doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-Sacchani (four noble truths), Ashtangika-Marga (Eight Fold Path), Middle Path, Social Code of Conduct, and Attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.

Buddha urges that one should not cling to anything (including his teachings). The teachings are only Upaya (skillful means or expedient tools) and are not dogma. It is fingers pointing at the moon and one should not confuse the finger for the moon.

The three pillars of his teachings are:

• Buddha – Founder/Teacher
• Dhamma – Teachings
• Sangha – Order of Buddhist Monks and Nuns (Upasakas)

The four noble truths form the core of the teachings of Buddhism, which are:

1. Dukha (The truth of suffering) – As per Buddhism, everything is suffering (Sabbam Dukham). It refers to the potential to experience pain and not only the actual pain and sorrow experienced by an individual.
2. Samudaya (The truth of the cause of suffering) – Trishna (desire) is the main cause of suffering. Every suffering has a reason and it is a part and parcel of living.
3. Nirodha (The truth of the end of suffering) – the pain/sorrow can be ended by the attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
4. Ashtangika-Marga (The truth of the path leading to the end of suffering) – the end to the suffering is contained in the eightfold path.

Eight-Fold Paths

The Eight-Fold Path is more about unlearning rather than learning, i.e., to learn in order to unlearn and uncover. The path consists of eight interconnected activities and is a process that helps one to move beyond the conditioned responses that obscure one’s nature. The Ashtangika-Marga consists of the following:

1. Right Vision (Samma-Ditthi) – it is about understanding the nature of reality and the path of transformation.
2. Right Thought or Attitude (Samma-Sankappa) – it signifies having emotional intelligence and acting from love and compassion.
3. Right or Whole Speech (Samma-Vacca) – it signifies truthful, clear, uplifting and unharmful communications.
4. Right or Integral Action (Samma-Kammanta) – it signifies an ethical foundation of life, on the principles of non-exploitation of oneself and others. It consists of five rules, which form the ethical code of conduct for the members of the monastic order and the laity. These are:

• Do not commit violence.
• Do not covet the property of others.
• Do not indulge in corrupt practices or sensual behaviour.
• Do not speak a lie.
• Do not use intoxicants.

In addition to these, monks and nuns were strictly instructed to observe the following three additional precepts-

• To avoid eating after mid-day.
• To refrain from any sort of entertainment and use of ornaments to adorn oneself.
• To refrain from using high or luxurious beds, and from handling gold and silver (including money).

5. Right or Proper Livelihood (Samma-Ajiva) – it lays emphasis on livelihood based on correct action and on the ethical principles of non-exploitation. It is believed that this forms the basis of an ideal society.
6. Right Effort or Energy (Samma-Vayama) – it signifies consciously directing our life energy to the transformative path of creative and healing action that fosters wholeness thus moving towards conscious evolution.
7. Right Mindfulness or Thorough Awareness ( Samma-Sati) – it means knowing one’s own self and watching self behaviour. There is a saying by the Buddha, “If you hold yourself dear, watch yourself well”.
8. Right Concentration or Meditation (Samma-Samadhi) – samadhi literally means to be fixed, absorbed in. It means getting one’s whole being absorbed in various levels or modes of consciousness and awareness.

The teachings of the Buddha follow the middle path (the one between extreme indulgence and extreme asceticism). Buddha has emphasised that if a person follows the eightfold path, then he will reach his destination (Nirvana) without the involvement of the monks/nuns. In the above-eightfold path, the word “right” signifies “whole”,” integral”, “complete”, “perfect”.

The ultimate aim of the Buddha’s teachings is the attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana. The Nibbana is a Pali word formed of ‘Ni’ and ‘vanna’, ni means negative and vanna refers to lust or craving. So, Nirvana means departure from cravings and lust. It signifies dying out or extinction of desire, greed, hatred, ignorance, attachment and the sense of ego. In Nibbana, nothing is eternalised nor is anything annihilated, other than the suffering. It is a supramundane state and an attainment (Dhamma) which is within the reach of all, even in this present life. The main difference between the Buddhist conception of Nibbana and the non-Buddhist concept is that Nibbana can be attained during life also. In the non-Buddhist concept, eternal heaven is realised only after death or union with God. When Nibbana is achieved in this life, it is called Sopadisesa Nibbana-dhatu. When an Arhat attains parinibbana (used for the death of enlightened beings such as Buddha), after the dissolution of his body, it is called Anupadisesa Nibbana-dhatu.

The philosophy of Buddha accepts impermanence and transmigration but denies the existence of God and believes that the soul is a myth. Buddhism teaches the existence of ten realms of being and one can be born as any one of them. At the top is Buddha followed by Bodhisattva (an enlightened being destined to be a Buddha but purposely remains on earth to propagate teachings), Pratyeka Buddha (a Buddha on their own), Sravaka (disciple of Buddha), heavenly beings (superhumans, angels), human beings, Asura (fighting spirits), beasts, Preta (hungry ghosts) and depraved men (hellish beings). These ten realms of existence are “mutually immanent and mutually inclusive”, each one having in it the remaining nine realms, e.g., the realm of human beings has all other nine states – from hell to Buddhahood in it. A man can be selfish or can rise to the enlightened state of Buddha. In Buddhism, karma is the result of actions depending on the intentions more than the action itself. Rebirth is the result of the karma of the previous life. Though Buddhism lays emphasis on non-violence, it doesn’t forbid masses from eating meat.

Other Important Aspects of Buddhism

Some other important aspects of Buddhism include:

• The Five Aggregates (Pancha-khanda or Panch skandha).
• The Law of Dependent Origination (Paticca- samuppada).

The Five Aggregates

The Buddha believed that a human being is a collection of Five Aggregates and a proper understanding of these is an essential step towards the attainment of freedom from suffering:

1. Material Form (Rupa) – It includes the five physical organs (ear, eye, tongue, nose & body) and the corresponding objects of the sense organs (sound, sight, taste, smell and tangible objects).
2. Feeling or Sensation (Vedana) – The aggregate of feelings arising out of contact with the objects of the senses is of three kinds-pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent.
3. Perception (Sanna) – This aggregate is the capacity to recognise & conceptualize things by associating them with other things.
4. Mental formation (Santharas) – This aggregate may be described as a conditioned response to the object of experience. In this sense, it partakes the meaning of habit as well. However, it not only has a static value, but dynamic value as well.
5. Consciousness (Vinnana) – The aggregate of consciousness is an indispensable element in the prediction of experience. It is essential to understand that consciousness depends on the other aggregates and does not exist independently.

All the Five Aggregates of experience are impermanent and constantly changing, like our perceptions change over time. Buddha stresses that the utility of the five aggregates is to make people understand them in terms of impersonal processes and through this understanding, they can get rid of the idea of self and can overcome hope and fear. They can regard happiness and pain, praise and blame and everything with equanimity, with even-mindedness and thus will then no longer be subject to the imbalance of alternating between hope and fear.

The Law of Dependent Origination (Paticca- Samuppada)

The Law of Dependent Origination explains the reason of suffering (Dukkha), as well as the key to its liberation. The law is associated with twelve links (Nidanas)-all arranged in a wheel and one leading to the next.  This principle can be given in a short formula of four lines-

                           When this is, that is

                          This arising, that arises

                          When this is not, that is not

                          This ceasing, that ceases.

This law emphasizes an important principle that all phenomena in this universe are relative, conditioned states and do not arise independently of supportive conditions.

The twelve links of the Dependent Origination are:

1. Ignorance (Avija)
2. Mental formation (Sankhara)
3. Consciousness (Vinnana)
4. Name & Form (Nama-Rupa)
5. The six senses (Salayatana)
6. Contact (Phassa)
7. Feeling (Vedana)
8. Craving (Tanha)
9. Clinging (Upadana)
10. Becoming (Bhava)
11. Birth (Jati)
12. Aging & death (Jara-marana)

All the links are interrelated and dependent on each other, thus there is no starting point nor end point-a cyclic phenomenon.

Dividing the 12 links into three groups-

1. Defilement (Klesha)– ignorance, craving and clinging. Defilement is the impurities of mind resulting in actions.
2. Action (Karma)– mental formation and becoming.
3. Suffering (Dukkha)– consciousness, name & form, the six senses, feeling, birth, aging and death.

Together, the defilements and actions explain the origin of suffering and particular circumstances in which each one of us finds ourselves, or in which we are born. The Buddha emphasizes that he who sees Dependent Origination sees the Dharma and he who sees the Dharma sees the Buddha. If one can see and understand the functioning of dependent origination, he can then set about breaking this vicious circle of dependent origination by removing the impurities of the mind – ignorance, craving and clinging. Once these impurities are eliminated, actions will not be performed, and habit-energy will not be produced. Once actions cease, rebirth and suffering will also cease.

What are the Major Buddhist Texts?

• The Buddha’s teaching was oral. He taught for 45 years, adapting the teaching to suit the group he was addressing.
  • The Sangha memorized the teachings, and there were group recitations at festivals and special occasions.
• The teachings were rehearsed and authenticated at the First Council and were divided in Three Pitakas in 483 BC.
  • His teachings were written down around 25 B.C.E. in Pali.

The Tipitakas (Canonical Texts)

The earliest compilation of Buddhist teachings which were written on long, narrow leaves is “The Tipitakas” (in Pali) and “Tripitaka” (in Sanskrit). All the branches of Buddhism have the Tripitakas (also called three baskets/collections) as part of their core scriptures, which comprise three books –

• The Sutta (conventional teaching) 
• The Vinaya (disciplinary code)
• The Abhidhamma (moral psychology)

1. The Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses) – these texts are also known as Buddha Vacana or the word of the Buddha. It contains Buddha’s discourse on various doctrinal issues in dialogue form.
2. The Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket) – this contains rules for monks and nuns of the monastic order (Sangha). It includes the Patimokka – a list of transgressions against monastic discipline and atonements for these. The Vinaya text also includes doctrinal expositions, ritual texts, biographical stories and some elements of Jatakas or “birth stories”.
3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings) – this contains a thorough study and systematisation of the teachings of the Sutta Pitaka through summaries, questions and answers, lists, etc.

The Tipitakas are divided into Nikayas (books):

1. Sutta Pitaka (5 collections)
   1. Digha-Nikaya
   2. Majjhima Nikaya
   3. Samyutta Nikaya
   4. Anguttara Nikaya
   5. Khuddaka Nikaya
      • Further subdivided into 15 books
2. Vinaya Pitaka (3 books)
   1. Sutta Vibhanga
      1. Maha-Vibhanga
      2. Bhikkuni-Vibhanga
   2. Khandaka
      1. Mahavagga
      2. Cullavagga
   3. Parivara
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka (7 books)
   1. Dhamma-sangani
   2. Vibhanga
   3. Dhatu-katha
   4. Puggala-pannati
   5. Kayha-vatthu
   6. Yamaka
   7. Patthana

Reasons for Spread & Popularity of Buddhism

• Buddha’s two types of followers: Monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas).
• For the sake of disseminating his teachings, the monks were organised into the Sangha.
• The Sangha was democratically run and had the authority to maintain discipline among its members.
• Even during Buddha’s lifetime, Buddhism advanced rapidly in North India thanks to the Sangha’s concerted efforts.
• Following Buddha’s death, his followers continued on his meditation path and travelled the countryside.
• Until the arrival of the Great Mauryan King – Ashoka – Buddhism was overshadowed by its Hindu competitors for 200 years.
• Following the slaughter of his Kalinga invasion, Emperor Ashoka decided to abandon his worldly conquering agenda in favour of Dhamma conquest.
• Various Buddhist missions were dispatched by Ashoka during the third Buddhist council to places like Gandhara, Kashmir, Greece, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Egypt, and Thailand.
• Ashoka’s missionary efforts spread Buddhism throughout West Asia and Ceylon. As a result, a local religious sect became a global religion.

What Role did the Buddhist Councils Play?

• Buddhist Councils marked important turning points in the early Buddhism.
• These councils resulted in sectarian clashes and the eventual Great Schism that resulted in the two major schools, Theravada and Mahayana.
• In total, 4 major Buddhist councils were convened:
  • First Council
    • It was held soon after the Mahaparinirvan of the Buddha, around 483 BC under the patronage of King Ajatshatru and was presided by Mahakasyapa, a monk.
    • The council was held in the Sattapani cave at Rajgriha.
    • The council was held with the purpose of preserving Buddha’s teachings (Sutta) and rules for disciples.
      • During this council, the teachings of Buddha were divided into three Pitakas.
  • Second Council
    • It was held in Vaishali, a village in Bihar under the patronage of the king Kalasoka in 383 BC. It was presided by Sabakami.
  • Third Council
    • It was held in 250 BC in Patliputra under the patronage of Ashoka and was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa.
  • Forth Council
    • It was held in 72 AD at Kundalvana, Kashmir. It was presided by Vasumitra, while Asvaghosa was his deputy under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan Empire.
    • Buddhism was divided into two sects namely Mahayan and Hinayan.

What are the Different Schools of Buddhism?

Mahayana:

• • It is one of the two main schools of Buddhism.
  • The term Mahayana is a Sanskrit word which literally means “Great Vehicle”.
  • It believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and Idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature.
  • It originated in northern India and Kashmir and then spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and some areas of Southeast Asia.
  • Buddhist schools embedded in China, Korea, Tibet and Japan belong to the Mahayana tradition.
  • It literally means “The Greater Path”.
  • The terms Hinayana & Mahayana were given by the Mahayana school.
  • Mahayana has two main philosophical schools – the Madhyamika & Yogachara.
  • Its scriptures are in Sanskrit.
  • This school of Buddhism considers Buddha as God and worships idols of Buddhas & Bodhisattvas.
  • It believes in universal liberation from sufferings for all beings, and spiritual upliftment.
  • Salvation can also be attained by means of faith and devotion to the mindfulness of the Buddha. It believes in mantras.

Hinayana

• • Literally Lesser vehicle, It believes in the original teaching of Buddha or Doctrine of elders.
  • It does not believe in Idol worship and tries to attain individual salvation through self discipline and meditation.
  • Theravada is a Hinayana sect.
  • Theravada was the original school of Buddhist philosophy.
  • Its scriptures are in Pali.
  • Doesn’t believe in idol worship.
  • Believes an individual can attain salvation through self-discipline & meditation.
  • At present, it is found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and other parts of South-East Asia.
  • Ashoka patronised Hinayana.

Theravada

• • It is the most ancient branch of extant Buddhism today.
  • It remains closest to the original teachings of the Buddha.
  • Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and subsequently spread to the rest of Southeast Asia.
  • It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

Vajrayana

• • Vajrayana means “The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt”, also known as tantric Buddhism.
  • This Buddhist school developed in India around 900 CE.
  • It is grounded on esoteric elements and very complex set of rituals compared with the rest of the Buddhist schools.
  • The Vajrayana or “Diamond Vehicle” is also called Mantrayana, Tantrayana or Esoteric Buddhism.
  • It was established in Tibet in the 11th century.
  • The “Two Truth Doctrine” is the central concept of Vajrayana. The two truths are identified as ‘conventional’ & ‘ultimate’ truths. Conventional truth is the truth of consensus, reality and common sense notions of what does exist and does not exist. Ultimate truth is the reality as perceived by an enlightened mind.
  • Vajrayana texts use a highly symbolic language “sandhya-bhasa” or “twilight language”. It aims to evoke experiences considered to be most valuable, in their followers. 
  • Vajrayana believes that salvation can be attained by acquiring magical powers called vajra.
  • It also lays importance on the role of Buddhistavas but favours fierce deities known as Taras.
  • The rituals and devotion employ mantras (esoteric verbal formulas), mandalas (diagrams & painting for visualisation practices) and a complex array of other rituals.
  • Much importance is given to the role of the guru called Lama who has mastered the philosophical and ritual traditions. There is a long lineage of lamas. The Dalai Lama is a well known Tibetan Lama.
  • It is predominant in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Mongolia. 

Zen

• • It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty as the Chan school of Chinese Buddhism in and later developed into various schools.
  • It spread to Japan in 7^th century C.E.
  • Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition.

Buddhist Sanga and its features

• The oldest prayer place in history where slaves, Insolvents, and diseased were not allowed.
• There were 64 types of crimes called Pathimokshas, which were prohibited
• Women were also allowed to join.