Chapter 3 : Rig Vedic Period & Later Vedic Period

Introduction

Vedic age is believed to be the period between 1500 to 600 BCE. The primary reconstruction has been made from the vedic text. It is the next major civilization in India after the Indus valley civilization.

Arrival of Aryans

• Aryans originally lived in the Steppes region. Later they moved to central Asia and then came to Punjab region of India around 1500 BC.
• With the advent of Aryans begins the history of Vedic Period (1500 BC-600 BC)
• Vedic period is divided into Early Vedic or Rigvedic (1500 BC-1000 BC) & Later Vedic (1000 BC- 600 BC)
• Aryans names appear in Hittite inscription (Anatolia), Kassitte inscription (Iraq) & Mittani inscription (Syria).
• An Iranian text, Zend Avesta, talks about names of Aryan Gods like Indra, Varuna,

Vedic Age

The vedic text forms the primary source of information for the reconstruction of the vedic age. This information has been supplemented through archaeological materials. The vedic texts are believed to be composed by the Indo Aryans. Indo Aryans refer to a Sab group of the Indo Iranian branch of the Indo European family of languages. They describe themselves as Arya etymologically derived from “Ar” meaning to cultivate.

Various theories that postulates the coming of the Aryan are:

The most accepted view was that there was a series of Aryan immigration. The earliest Indo Aryans lived in the geographical area which covered the areas of eastern Afghanistan Punjab and parts of Western Uttar Pradesh. The Sindhu comma referred to as the Indus is believed to be the Homeland of the Aryans. Another river which finds mention is the Saraswati which now is lost in the Sands of Rajasthan. The region where Aryans first settled in India is called the land of seven rivers.

Geography of the Vedic Age

Early Vedic period

• The early Aryans were located in and around the areas surrounding Indus and its tributaries. This area is referred to as the Sapt- Sindhu region ( the land of seven rivers).
• Also it extends around The Lost Saraswati river, the area which is represented by the present Ghaggar river in Rajasthan.
• In this phase, there was no reference to the sea. No mention was made about the Himalayas and the Ganges.

Later Vedic Period

• In the later period, the Aryans moved to the Eastern areas with the help of fire and iron tools.
• The area inhabited by them included the Guru Panchala region (the indo-gangetic divided and the upper Ganga valley).
• During this phase, they acquired knowledge of the eastern and the Western sea, i.e., Arabian sea and the Indian Ocean and also of the Narmada and Vindhya mountains.

Political Structure of the Vedic Age

The early Vedic society was a semi nomadic tribal society with a pastoral economy. Here the tribe was called the Jana and the tribal chief as Rajan, Gopati or Gopa. The Queen was referred to as the Mahishi.

Administration Of Early Vedic Age

• There was instances of monarchy but the office of the chief was not hereditary
• The chief was referred to as the gopati or Gopa.
• No doctrine of divinity was associated with the kingship.
• There are instances of election by the tribal assembly which was referred to as the Samiti.
• The Rajan was responsible to protect the Jana and the cattle from the enemies along with offering prayers to God on behalf of the Jana.
• The Jana often fought with the Panis who used to hide the cattle of Jana in the forest. In order to get back their cattle Indra the vedic God Was invoked and Battles such as the Gavisthi were fought.
• The Rajan was assisted by popular bodies like the Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata, Gana.
• The sabha had few chiefs while the samiti was a larger body. Vidhata was the oldest among the body.
• The place where the cattle was kept was called “Gaun” and the quest for cows was termed as Gavishthi.
• The early Vedic society had a patrilineal system
• The head of the family was called Kula.
• The administration of the Rig Society consisted of-
  • Purohit: He was concerned with performing their ritualistic services and received Dakshina and Dana.
  • Sanani: He was the leader of the Army.
  • Vrajapati: He was concerned with controlling the territory.
  • Gramini: the gramini was the leader of the village and the fighting unit.
• The Jana was further divided into Vis and this was in turn divided into many Kul or Kutumb.
• The Kutumb had “Griha” as its unit and Kulapa as its head while the Griha was headed by Grihapati.
• Group of Kula made a gram and the gram was headed by a gramini.

Administration Of the Later Vedic Age

• In the later Vedic period, the Jana evolved into janapadas.
• Frequent battles were fought between these janapadas for territory.
• During this phase, the authority of the Rajan became more evident and he was supported by a support staff called Ratnin who were the 12 jewels of the king.
• Here, the chiefship became hereditary.
• There was no presence of standing Army
• Various sacrifices like the Rajsuya, Vajpeya, Ashwamedha were performed by the Rajan to become a ruler of all directions.
• Rajan assumed titles like Samrat, Ekrat and Virat.
• The term rashtra which indicated territory made first appearance in this period.
• Dependence on assembly like Sabha and Samiti were reduced. Vidhata completely disappeared in this Phase.
• Women were now not allowed to attend these assemblies.

Economy of the Vedic Age

Early Vedic Period

• In this period the society was pastoral and Agriculture was the secondary occupation of the people.
• The main wealth was cattle.
• Agriculture was carried on only for consumption purposes. There is a mention of wooden ploughshare and the Rig Veda.
• The most common name of grain was Yava.
• Bali was a voluntary gift from the producers to Rajan.
• No tax was imposed nor was any treasury maintained.
• There is no mention of currency or coins however a gold piece called Nishika finds mention.
• Barter system was prevalent during this period and the most favoured medium of exchange was cows.
• Copper tools are reported from states of Punjab and Haryana. Iron was not known to them.
• The most common name used for any metal was Ayas.
• Horses played a significant role in the life of the early Vedic period.
• The economic activities prevalent were hunting, carpentry, weaving, metal smeltery, etc.

Later Vedic Period

• Agriculture of multiple crops began and cattle rearing continued. This put a limitation on Nomadic nature.
• Crops like wheat Barley rice moong urad where cultivated
• Iron was the discovered in the period and there was use of fire for clearing forest for agriculture purposes
• There was an increased surplus which led to taxes like Bali and bhaga customary contributions to the king’s treasury.
• Treasurer was called as Samgrahitri and Bhagdukha who collected the taxes.
• Various arts and crafts like smelting carpentry, Jewellery making, dying, pottery making also find mention in this period.

Social Life of the Vedic Age

Early Vedic period

Division of the society

• Society was divided into Aryans and non Aryan full stop the non areas were called the Dasas and Dasyus. The Aryans were soft towards Dasas and hostile towards the Dasyus.
• The society was divided in terms of the Clan.
• Even the Rajans and the Purohit were part of the Clan network

Varna System

• Varna was the basis of differentiation between the vedic and the non Vedic people
• Therefore the Rigvedic society cannot be termed as a totally egalitarian society as social stratification was based on the division of labour and gender. However the four fold Varna order and the rigid caste system was not completely developed in this period
• Rigvedic people were familiar with the Institution of slavery. These slaves were used for domestic purposes and not for agriculture.

Social Mobility

During this period, there were instances of mobility where people could change their profession. Thus, there was absence of strict social hierarchy

Position of Women

• The woman held important positions and were educated.
• They had access to assembly Sabha and Samiti
• Women had the right to choose their husband
• There was no incidence of Sati or Purdah system

Institution of Marriage

• The early Vedic people practiced monogamous marriage however practices like polygamy and polyandry also existed.
• Levirate (the practice of marrying the younger brother on the death of husband) also existed.
• Niyoga marriage ( it was a variant of widow marriage in which the childless widow was temporarily married to the husband’s brother to produce children).

Later Vedic Period

Division of the Society

• The society was divided in terms of 4 fold division of the society based on caste system.
• Practices of caste exogamy and rigid social hierarchy developed.
• There was increased practices of sacrifices which added to the power of the brahmanas.

Varna System

• The Varna system became more distinct in this period
• The system became more on the basis of birth and less on occupational terms.
• The Varnashrama Dharma society showcased the four stages of life.

Social Mobility

Instances of mobility were restricted in this period.

Position of Women

• Women were increasingly confined to the household chores and subordinate position.
• They were not permitted to attend public assemblies like the Sabha and the Samiti
• There were instances of the Sati system and Purdah.
• However, despite the derogatory position of women there were scholars like Gargi, Maitri and Katyayani.

Institution of Marriage

• Child marriage became more prominent in this period.
• The system of gotra was institutionalised.
• Marriage between Person of the same gotra was prohibited
• There is a mention of Chandrayana Penance for men marrying women of the same gotra.

Religion of the Vedic Age

Early Vedic Period

There were no instances of temple or Idol worship.

• The people practice primitive animism. They worshipped the forces of nature such as wind, rain and water.
• Simple, short and less ritualistic worship and sacrifices were practised for Praja and Pashu. The main objective of worship was to increase population protect cattle birds of male child and protection against diseases
• The rituals were performed by the household themselves and there was no presence of any priest.
• Chanting of mantras was an important part of the ritual.
• Male gods
  • Indra the God of thunder
  • Agni the God of Fire
  • Varuna the god of water
  • Soma the god of plants
  • Yama the god of death
  • pushan the god of jungle parts and cattle
  • Vishnu benevolent God
  • Ashwini the God of War and fertility
• Female God
  • Savitri solar deity
  • Aditi goddess of eternity
  • Prithvi goddess of Earth
  • Nirrti Goddess of death
  • Usha goddess of Dawn

Later Vedic Period

• During this period, Idol worship became prominent.
• Sacrifices became more elaborate and important.
• Magic and omen entered the social religious life.
• The brahmans gained importance and maintained their supremacy.
• There was large scale performance of yajnas such as Ashwamedha to establish authority over the chiefs and their territory
• Male gods
  • Indra and Agni lost importance
  • Prajapati the god of creation became supreme
  • There was division in the class of deities. Pushan the god of cattle became the god of Shudras.

Vedic Literature

The Vedic texts are classified into two parts, namely, Shruti and Smriti.

Shruti

• Shrutis are the text that is heard or is a product of Godly revelation to the sages while they were in meditation.
• The Shruti includes the four Vedas and the samhitas

Smriti

• Smriti is those that are recollected by normal humans.
• Smriti includes 6 Vedangas, four Upvedas, and the commentaries on the Vedas

Vedas

Rig Veda

• The Rig Veda is the oldest Veda and depicts the life of the early Vedic people in India.
• Its text consists of 1028 hymns which are then divided into 10 mandalas
• Mandalas 2-7 form the oldest part of the Rigveda Samita and are called family books as they prescribed families of the Rishis.
• Mandala 8 contains the hymns dedicated to various gods
• The upveda of Rig Veda is Ayurveda
• The Brahmana associated with Rig veda is Aiteraya.

Sam Veda

• The Sam Veda is a collection of verses drawn from the Rig Veda
• It contains the famous Dhrupad Raga which was latest sung by Tansen
• Its upveda is Gandharva Veda
• The Brahmana associated with it is Sadavimsha.

Yajurveda

• It deals with the procedure for the performance of the sacrifices
• It is further subdivided into Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda
• Shukla Yajurveda: it contains only the mantras. It contains madhyandina and recensions.
• Krishna Yajurveda: It contains the mantras as well as prose explanations and commentary
• The upveda of yajurveda is Dhanur Veda
• The Brahmana associated with it is Gopatha.

Atharva Veda

• The Atharva Veda is distinct from the other three Vedas in that it concentrates on everyday magic spells used to ward off bad spirits, danger, chants, hymns, prayers, weddings, and funerals.
• The name “Atharva” comes from the priest Atharvan, who was a religious innovator and healer.
• The Atharva Veda was the last among the Vedas to be composed.
• There are 5687 mantras included in 20 chapters of this Veda.