Chapter 28 : Development of Indian Press
Introduction
- During the colonial period, the British are credited with introducing independent press or participatory journalism in India. However, the British administration made a greater effort to restrain the Indian press in order to limit the nationalistic sentiments spread through it. The development of the Indian press was fraught with developmental challenges, illiteracy, colonial constraints, and repression. It spread freedom ideas and became a prominent tool in the freedom struggle.
Press Development – Background
- James Augustus Hickey founded “The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser” in 1780, but it was seized in 1872 due to its outspoken criticism of the government.
- It was Hickey’s efforts that laid the groundwork for the Indian press.
- Later on, more newspapers/journals appeared, including The Bengal Journal, Calcutta Chronicle, Madras Courier, and Bombay Herald.
- The officers of the Company were concerned that these newspapers would reach London and expose their wrongdoings.
- As a result, they saw the need for press restraints.
Early Regulations
Censorship of Press Act, 1799
- The Censorship of Press Act, 1799, was enacted by Governor-General Richard Wellesley to prevent the French from publishing anything critical of the British.
- This act subjected all newspapers to government scrutiny prior to publication. This act was later expanded in 1807 to include all types of press publications, including newspapers, magazines, books, and pamphlets.
- When Francis Hastings (1813-1823) took office in 1818, the rules were relaxed.
Licensing Regulations, 1823
- Governor-General John Adams introduced the Licensing Regulation Ordinance.
- This regulation made operating a press without a licence a criminal offence.
- The ban was primarily aimed at Indian-language newspapers or those edited by Indians.
- This prompted Raja Ram Mohun Roy to discontinue publication of his Persian journal ‘Mirat-ul-akhbar,’ which he began in 1822.
Press Act 1835 (Metcalfe Act)
- The 1835 Press Act, also known as the Metcalfe Act, repealed the 1823 Licensing Regulations.
- Metcalfe became known in India as the “liberator of the press.”
- The act required a printer/publisher to provide a detailed account of the premises of a publication and to cease operations if a similar declaration was issued.
- A liberal press policy resulted in the rapid growth of newspapers.
Licensing Act, 1857
- After the Revolt of 1857, Governor General Canning (later Viceroy in 1858) enacted the Licensing Act of 1857 to impose stricter restrictions on the press.
- This act imposed licensing restrictions as well as the right to halt the publication and distribution of any book, newspaper, or printed matter owned by the government.
Registration Act, 1867
- The Metcalfe act of 1835 was repealed by the Registration Act of 1867.
- The act was said to impose regulations but no restrictions on the press.
- The name of the printer, publisher, and place of publication were now required to be included in the print media, and a copy was required to be submitted to the government.
Vernacular Press Act, 1878
Vernacular Press Act – Background
- The racial animosity between the ruler and the ruled was a bitter legacy of the 1857 revolt.
- Following 1858, the European press always supported the government in political controversies, whereas the vernacular press was critical of the government.
- There was a strong public backlash against Lytton’s imperialistic policies, which were exacerbated by a terrible famine (1876–77), on the one hand, and lavish spending on the imperial Delhi Durbar, on the other.
- The country’s vernacular press expanded dramatically in the latter half of the nineteenth century, and newspapers served as a catalyst for the new socio-political consciousness.
- Previously, newspapers were only published in Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and Allahabad, but later, newspapers began to be published in smaller towns as well.
- Because most of the newspapers were published in small towns, they were all written in vernacular languages.
- When this act was passed in 1878, there were 20 English newspapers and 200 vernacular newspapers.
- People became more aware of political issues as a result of these vernacular newspapers, and they gradually began to ask questions about their rights.
- As a result, Lord Lytton enacted the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 in the best interests of the government.
Vernacular Press Act – Provisions
- The magistrates of the districts were empowered by this act to call upon a printer and publisher of any kind to enter into a bond, undertaking not to publish anything that might “rouse” feelings of dissatisfaction against the government without the prior permission of the government.
- The magistrate was also given the authority to deposit a security deposit, which could be confiscated if the printer violated the Bond. If a printer commits the same offense again, his press may be seized.
- The magistrate’s decision was final, and there could be no appeal in a court of law.
- A vernacular newspaper could obtain an exemption from the Act’s application by submitting proof to a government censor.
Vernacular Press Act – Impact
- The act became known as “the Gagging Act.”
- The most heinous aspects of this act were:
- discrimination between English and vernacular press, and
- no right of appeal.
- Som Prakash, Bharat Mihir, Dacca Prakash, and Samachar were charged under the VPA.
- Incidentally, to avoid the VPA, the Amrita Bazar Patrika morphed overnight into an English newspaper.
- Later, the pre-censorship clause was repealed, and a press commissioner was appointed to provide the press with authentic and accurate news.
- The act was met with strong opposition, and Ripon eventually repealed it in 1882.
Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908
- The Newspaper (Incitement to Offense) Act of 1908 empowered magistrates to seize press property that published objectionable material likely to incite murder or violent acts.
- Extremist nationalist activity during and after the Swadeshi movement of 1906 prompted this act.
Indian Press Act, 1910
Indian Press Act – Background
- The British government’s attitude toward the Indian press changed over time.
- From 1908 to 1935, numerous press laws were enacted in an attempt to curb the anti-British tone of the Indian press.
- The resurgence of political terrorism forced the British to take a hard line against Indian nationalists.
- On February 4, 1910, Lord Ridley, the Home Member, introduced a bill to prohibit the distribution of anti-government literature.
- On February 9, 1910, Lord Minto II, Viceroy of India, enacted the Indian Press Act of 1910.
Important Provisions of the Act
- The Indian Press Act of 1910 was enacted in British India, and it imposed rigorous censorship on all types of publications.
- The principal tools of control imposed by the Press Act were financial securities that could be confiscated if any of the legislation’s extraordinarily broad provisions were broken.
- Proprietors were required to deposit between 500 and 5000 rupees, according to the Magistrate’s discretion.
- The authority to detain and investigate the suspected substance was given to customs and postal authorities.
- Section 12(1) of the Act empowered Local Governments to issue warrants against any newspaper or book containing seditious matters, which were to be forfeited to his Majesty.
- The Indian Press Act of 1910 prohibited the publication of a large amount of nationalist press and political literature.
Implications of the Act
- Attempts to incite murder or anarchical outrages, to tamper with the loyalty of the Army or Navy, to excite racial, class, and religious animosity, hatred, and contempt of the Government or a native prince, to incite criminal intimidation and interference with law and order, and to intimidate public servants with threats of injury were all defined as press offenses in the bill.
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak was prosecuted for sedition and sentenced to six years in Mandalay (Burma).
- Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, the Law Member of the Government of India, headed a committee to examine the working of the Indian Press Act, 1910. On the recommendation of the Committee, the Act was repealed.
- Lord Reading (1921-1926) later abolished the Indian Press Act of 1910.
Struggle by Early Nationalists to Secure Press Freedom
- The protection of civil liberties, including press freedom, has been a key concern for Indian nationalists since the early nineteenth century. Notably, Raja Rammohan Roy voiced his protest against a resolution that sought to restrict press freedom as early as 1824.
- From around 1870 to 1918, during the early phase of the nationalist movement, the focus was primarily on political propaganda, education, and the formulation and dissemination of nationalist ideology. The press emerged as a vital tool in the hands of nationalists for these purposes. The Indian National Congress, in its early days, heavily relied on the press to communicate its resolutions and proceedings to a wider audience.
- This period saw the establishment of numerous newspapers under the stewardship of distinguished journalists. These newspapers were not driven by profit motives; instead, they saw themselves as vehicles for national and public service. As a result, they gained a substantial readership and even ignited a library movement.
- The influence of these newspapers extended far beyond urban centers, reaching remote villages. In these villages, people would gather around a single newspaper, with each news item and editorial being meticulously read and discussed. These gatherings gave rise to what were known as “local libraries,” which served a dual purpose: they facilitated political education and encouraged political participation among the masses.
- These publications played a critical role in scrutinizing government acts and policies. They served as an essential opposition institution, providing a platform for nationalists to express their dissent and advocate for reforms. The press, during this period, not only disseminated information but also played a pivotal role in shaping public opinion and galvanizing support for the nationalist cause.
During and After First World War
During the First World War
- The British authorities imposed the Defence of India Rules as a means to quell political agitation and suppress free public criticism. This period witnessed stringent measures against press freedom.
- The Press Acts of 1908 and 1910, which had curtailed the freedom of the press, were finally repealed in 1921. This move came as a result of the recommendations put forth by a Press Committee chaired by Tej Bahadur Sapru.
- In the aftermath of the Salt Satyagraha in 1930, the Indian Press (Emergency Power) Act of 1931 was enacted. This Act granted authorities sweeping powers to suppress publications that questioned the government’s authority, particularly during the civil disobedience movement. Provincial governments were empowered to take action against any propaganda promoting civil disobedience, and the Act was expanded in 1932 to encompass all activities aimed at undermining government authority.
During the Second World War
- Under the Defense of India Rules, pre-censorship was imposed on the press. Amendments to the Press Emergency Act resulted in an increase in the penalty for violations to up to five years of imprisonment. Furthermore, the Official Secrets Act was amended to introduce the possibility of the death penalty or transportation for those found guilty of publishing information that could be useful to the enemy.
- Despite the imposition of numerous draconian laws and restrictions, the Indian press remained steadfast in its commitment to defending civil liberties and press freedom. It emerged as a beacon of hope and a staunch advocate for the national movement, navigating its way around regulations to ensure that the voice of the people continued to be heard.
Development of Press in India Short Notes
Here are short notes on the development of the press in India in table form:
| Development of Press in India | |
|---|---|
| Development in Indian Press | Year |
| Introduction of the first printing press by the Portuguese. | 1556 |
| James Augustus Hickey founded “The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser”. | 1780 |
| Launch of the first Indian-owned newspaper, “The Bombay Herald”. | 1789 |
| Publication of the first Hindi newspaper, “Samachar Sudha Varshan”, by Pandit Jugal Kishore Shukla. | 1799 |
| Raja Rammohan Roy protests against a resolution restricting press freedom. | 1824 |
| Introduction of English education in India through Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Education. | 1835 |
| Publication of “Mirat-ul-Akhbar,” the first Persian newspaper by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. | 1838 |
| Emergence of influential newspapers such as “The Bengal Journal,” “Madras Courier,” “Calcutta Chronicle,” and “Bombay Herald”. | 1850s |
| The Revolt of 1857, also known as India’s First War of Independence, played a role in shaping nationalist sentiments through the press. | 1857 |
| The Indian Press Act is enacted to impose censorship and control over the press. | 1861 |
| Vernacular Press Act is introduced, giving the government powers to confiscate newspapers. | 1878 |
| The Swadeshi Movement leads to the emergence of more nationalist newspapers. | 1907 |
| The period sees significant growth in newspapers focused on political propaganda and education. | 1910-1918 |
| Repeal of the Press Acts of 1908 and 1910 based on the recommendations of a Press Committee. | 1921 |
| The Indian Press (Emergency Power) Act is passed, granting authorities broad powers to suppress publications during the Salt Satyagraha. | 1931 |
| The Act is expanded to encompass all activities aimed at undermining government authority. | 1932 |
| Stringent measures imposed to suppress political agitation and free public criticism through the Defense of India Rules. | World War I & II |
| India gains independence, leading to greater press freedom and vibrant journalism. | 1947 |