Chapter 2 : Indus Valley Civilization

Introduction

• The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as Harappan Civilization.
• It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in contemporary Pakistan and Western India.
• The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.
• In 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed.
• In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.

Indus Valley Civilisation

• The advent of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, marks the beginning of Indian history.
• The Indus Valley Civilisation was called after the Indus river system, on which alluvial plains the early sites of the civilization were discovered and excavated.
• The Indus Valley Civilization began approximately 3300 BC.
• It thrived between 2600 and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It began to decline around 1900 BC and vanished around 1400 BC.
• This is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after the first city unearthed, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
• The first evidence of cotton production has been discovered in Mehrgarh, Pakistan, dating back to the Pre-Harappan civilization.
• The Indus Valley was home to the largest of Egypt’s, Mesopotamia’s, India’s, and China’s ancient urban civilizations.
• The Archaeological Department of India conducted excavations in the Indus valley in the 1920s, unearthing the ruins of two ancient towns, Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
• In 1924, ASI Director-General John Marshall proclaimed to the world the finding of a new civilization in the Indus Valley.

Origin and Evolution

• The archaeological discoveries made during the previous eight decades demonstrate the Harappan culture’s progressive growth.
• Pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan, and late Harappan are the four major stages or periods of development.
• Eastern Balochistan is the location of the pre-Harappan stage.
• Excavations in Mehrgarh, 150 miles northwest of Mohenjodaro, have shown the presence of pre-Harappan civilization. At this point, the nomadic people began to settle down and live a stable agricultural existence.
• The Early Harappan Phase is associated with the Hakra Phase, which was discovered in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.
• People lived in huge communities on the plains during the Early Harappan period. The settlements in the Indus valley grew gradually.
• During this time, there was also a movement from country to urban life. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji continue to provide evidence for the early Harappan period.
• Great cities arose during the mature-Harappan era.
• The excavations at Kalibangan, with their intricate town planning and urban elements, demonstrate this stage of progression.
• The fall of the Indus civilization began in the late-Harappan era. This stage of progression is revealed by the excavations at Lothal.
• Lothal, with its harbor, was established considerably later. As flood protection, it was enclosed by a large brick wall.
• Lothal remained a commerce hub for the Harappan civilization and the rest of India, as well as Mesopotamia.

Date of Indus Valley Civilisation

• Sir John Marshall estimated the length of Mohenjodaro’s settlement between 3250 and 2750 B.C. in 1931.
• As a result, as additional sites are uncovered, the date of the Harappan civilization is revised.
• The development of the radiocarbon technique allows for the determination of nearly exact dates.
• On the basis of radiocarbon dates from his finds, Fairservis reduced the chronology of the Harappan civilization to between 2000 and 1500 B.C. by 1956.
• D.P. Agarwal concluded in 1964 that the overall period of this civilization should be between 2300 and 1750 B.C.
• However, these dates are subject to additional change.

Important sites of Indus Valley Civilisation

Phases of IVC

Salient Features of the Indus Valley Civilisation

Town Planning

• Harappan civilization was characterized by its urban planning system.
• Each of Harappa and Mohenjodaro had its own citadel or acropolis, which was likely held by ruling class members.
• Each city has a lower town with brick homes that were occupied by the ordinary people beneath the citadel.
• The grid method was used to arrange the dwellings in the city, which is exceptional.
• Granaries were an essential feature of Harappan towns.
• The usage of burnt bricks in Harappan towns is noteworthy, as dry bricks were often used in Egyptian constructions at the time.
• Mohenjodaro’s drainage system was rather outstanding.
• The Great Bath, which is 39 feet long, 23 feet wide, and 8 feet deep, is Mohenjodaro’s most significant public space.
• At either end, a flight of steps leads to the surface. There are dressing rooms on the side. The Bath’s floor was constructed of burned bricks.
• Water was drawn from a large well in another room, and a drain was accessible from one corner of the Bath. It was probably used for ceremonial bathing.
• A granary spanning 150 feet long and 50 feet wide is the biggest structure in Mohenjodaro.
• However, there are as many as six granaries in Harappa’s fortress.
• Practically every big or little property in almost every city has its own patio and bathroom.
• Many residences in Kalibangan had wells.
• The entire community was fortified at locations like Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), and portions of the town were also protected by walls.

Economic Life

• The presence of numerous seals, uniform script, and regulated weights and measures across a large area demonstrates the importance of trade in the lives of the Indus people.
• Stone, metal, shell, and other materials were traded extensively by the Harappans.
• Metal money was not utilized, and trade was conducted through barter.
• They practiced navigation along the Arabian Sea’s shore.
• They had established a commercial colony in northern Afghanistan, which aided commerce with Central Asia.
• They also traded with people living around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
• The Harappans engaged in long-distance lapis lazuli trading, which may have boosted the ruling class’s social standing.

Agriculture in Indus Valley Civilisation

• Harappan communities, which were generally located in river plains, generated enough foodgrains.
• Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea, and mustard were among the crops grown.
• Millets have also been discovered in Gujarat. While rice was used infrequently.
• The Indus people were the first to cultivate cotton.
• Whole grain findings suggest the presence of agriculture, reconstructing real agricultural operations is more challenging.
• The bull was recognized, according to representations on seals and terracotta art, and archaeologists conclude that oxen were also utilised for ploughing.
• The majority of Harappan sites are in semi-arid regions where irrigation was likely necessary for cultivation.
• Canal traces have been discovered in Afghanistan’s Shortughai Harappan site, but not in Punjab or Sindh.
• Although the Harappans were farmers, they also raised animals on a massive scale.
• A shallow level of Mohenjodaro and a dubious ceramic piece from Lothal provide evidence of the horse. In any event, Harappan civilization was not centred on horses.

• To comprehend the Harappan social life, there is a wealth of evidence. Both men and women wore two pieces of fabric, one for the upper body and the other for the lower body.
• Both men and women wore beads.
• Women wore bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings, and finger rings, among other things.
• Gold, silver, copper, bronze, and semi-precious stones were used to create these decorations.
• Cosmetic usage was widespread. At Mohenjodaro, several household items made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory, and metal have been discovered.
• Copper is used to make spindles, needles, combs, fish hooks, and knives.
• Fishing was a popular hobby, while bullfighting and hunting were also popular.
• Axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, and arrows made of copper and bronze were among the many weapons on display.

Social Institutions

• In the Indus valley, just a few written items have been uncovered, and academics have yet to decode the Indus script.
• As a result, determining the nature of the Indus Valley Civilization’s state and institutions is challenging.
• At no Harappan site have temples been discovered. As a result, the prospect of priests dominating Harappa is ruled out.
• Harappa was most likely dominated by a merchant class.
• Archaeological documents may not give obvious answers when looking for a power centre or portrayals of powerful people.
• Some archaeologists believe that Harappan culture had no rulers and that everyone was treated equally.

Art and Crafts

• The Harappans were well-versed in the production and application of bronze.
• Copper was acquired from Rajasthan’s Khetri copper mines, while tin was likely imported from Afghanistan.
• Several artefacts have been discovered with textile imprints.
• Large brick structures indicate that brick-laying was a valuable skill. This also confirms the existence of a mason class.
• The Harappans were known for their boat-building, bead-making, and seal-making skills. Terracotta production was also a significant skill.
• Goldsmiths created silver, gold, and precious stone jewellery.
• The potter’s wheel was in full swing, and the Harappans were producing their own distinctive glossy and gleaming pottery.

Religion

• Several clay figures of women have been discovered at Harappa. A plant is represented sprouting out of a woman’s embryo in one figure.
• As a result, the Harappans saw the earth as a fertility goddess, worshipping her in the same way that the Egyptians revered the Nile goddess Isis.
• The masculine god is shown as a seal with three-horned heads seated in the pose of a yogi.
• This god sits on a throne surrounded by elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, and buffalo.
• Two deer emerge at his feet. The divinity represented is known as Pushupati Mahadeva.
• There have been several stone phallus and female sex organ symbols discovered.
• Trees and animals were highly revered by the Indus people.
• The one-horned unicorn, which is related to the rhinoceros, is the most significant, while the humped bull is the second most important.
• Numerous amulets have also been discovered.

Script in Indus Valley Civilisation

• The Harappan script is currently being deciphered in its entirety.
• There are between 400 and 600 signs, with 40 or 60 being fundamental and the rest being modifications.
• The majority of the script was written from right to left.
• The boustrophedon approach — writing in the opposite way in alternate lines – was used on a few lengthy seals.
• Dravidian was the language of the Harappans, according to Parpola and his Scandinavian colleagues. This viewpoint is shared by a group of Soviet academics.
• Other researchers hold a different perspective on the Harappan and Brahmi scripts.
• The Harappan writing remains a mystery, and deciphering it will undoubtedly provide new information on this civilisation.

Burial Methods

• Cemeteries unearthed near towns like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rupar shed information on the Harappans’ burial habits.
• At Mohenjodaro, both complete burial and post-cremation burial were prevalent.
• The burial hole at Lothal was lined with charred bricks, indicating that coffins were used. At Harappa, wooden coffins were also discovered.
• Pot burials have been discovered in Lothal, occasionally with pairs of bones. However, there is no concrete proof that Sati is practised.

Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

• There is no universal agreement on what caused the Harappan civilization to fall. Several hypotheses have been proposed.
• Natural disasters like repeated floods, river drying up, diminishing soil fertility owing to overexploitation, and periodic earthquakes may have contributed to the downfall of the Harappan towns.
• The invasion of Aryans, according to some experts, was the ultimate blow. The Rig Veda mentions the demolition of forts.
• Human bones discovered crowded together at Mohenjodaro further suggest that the city was attacked by strangers.
• The Aryans possessed stronger weaponry and fast horses, which may have helped them to conquer this region.