Chapter 14: Early Muslim Invasion
The first Muslim Invasion of India was by the Arabs, led by Muhammad Bin Qasim. It occurred in 711 AD and resulted in Sind’s conquest. The first Turkish invasion of India was led by Mohammed Ghazni. He only attacked India for the sake of money. He attacked India seventeen times between 1000 and 1027 AD under the guise of Jihad. He launched his first invasion into India in 1001 AD.
Arab Invasion in India
Muhammad Bin Qasim
- Muhammad ibn Qasim (December 31, 695 – July 18, 715) was an Arab military commander in the service of the Umayyad Caliphate who led the Muslim conquest of Sindh during the Umayyad campaigns in India.
- His military exploits resulted in the establishment of Arab Sind and the annexation of the region from the Sindhi Brahmin dynasty and its ruler, Raja Dahir, who was later decapitated and his head sent to al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf in Basra.
- With the capture of Aror, the then-capital of Arabia, by Arab forces, Qasim became the first Muslim to successfully capture Hindu land, ushering in Muslim rule in India.
- He was the Umayyad general who had led the conquest of Sindh at the age of 17. This adolescent conqueror followed in Alexander’s footsteps by bringing a new faith and culture to the Indus basin.
- He is mentioned in the ChachNama between 709 and 711 CE, when Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq, appointed him to lead an expedition against Sindh.
- Qasim was Hajjaj’s nephew, and because he was a capable commander, his uncle appointed him as the commander of Makran’s frontier district.
- He was assigned a conquest mission in the direction of Sindh. Qasim’s expedition against Sindh was meticulously planned.
The battle fought by Mohammed Bin Qasim
- Fall of Debal- Dehar is a famous seaport. It was captured and a large amount of booty and women went into the hands of Arabs
- Fall of Nirun- Nirun was under the charge of Dahir’s Son Jai Sindh. With the approach of Qasim, Jai Sindh fled and Nirun was Captured without any fight
- Fall of Sehwan – Cousin of Dahir, Bajhra was in charge of Sehwan. Bajhra could not face the attacks of Arab and fled.
- Fall of Sisam and Victory over Jats- It was ruled by Kaka a Jat king. He gave shelter to Bajhra after he fled from Sehwan. Qasim defeated jats and Bajhra and their followers were killed.
- Battle of Rewar- Fought between Mohammed bin Qasim and Dahir Ruler of Sindh. Dahir died in the battle and Qasim got the rule of Multan and Sindh. Soon capitals of other provinces such as Brahmanabad, and Alor were also captured.
Battle of Rewar
- Muhammad-bin-Qasim fought against Dahir, the ruler of Sindh.
- A Brahmin named Dahir was defeated and Sindh and Multan had been taken.
- Multan was dubbed the “City of Gold” by Muhammad-bin-Qasim.
Administrative System
- After being conquered, the region of Sindh was governed by Arabs.
- This was the same pattern used by the Arab conquerors in other areas they had conquered. Scholars believe that this administration pattern was more liberal than later systems.
- This was primarily due to the fact that the school of Islamic law in the earlier centuries was not as strict as that in the later centuries.
- For the same reason, Muslim regimes around the world were perceived to be more austere in the later centuries.
- This trend can be seen in the cases of Turkish or Mughal rule in India from the 12th to the 18th centuries.
Army Capacity
Qasim had a boisterous militiary consisting
- 250000 troops with 600 Camels
- 6000 Syrian Horses
- 3000 Bactrian Donkeys
- An artillery force containing 2000 men, advanced guards, and five catapults
End of Qasim
- Qasim died due to a family feud.
Turkish Invasion in India
Period of Invasion
- Turkish rule started in 1000 AD and continued till Khalji Dynasty. Alauddin Khalji was the last known Turkish ruler in India. This was the preparatory phase for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
Subuktagin (977 to 998)
- Subuktagin was the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty. He was the father of Mahmud Ghazni. Battle of Peshawar 1001 between the Ghaznavid army of sultan Mahmoud Bin Subuktagin and the Hindu Shahi army of Jaypala. A humiliation treaty was signed between Jaypala and Subuktagin due to the loss of Jaypala. This was the first major battle of the Ghaznavid expansion in the Indian subcontinent. Subuktagin conquered a large territory in Central Persia.
Mahmud of Ghazni (971 – 1030 AD)
- Ghaznavi was the first ruler to attack the Rajput kingdom in India. He had a vision of establishing supremacy over Muslim rulers. He had hundreds of Hindu soldiers in his army including his commander named Tilak.
- Mahmud of Ghazni (Nov. 2, 971–April 30, 1030). He was the first ruler to be given the title of Sultan. His father was Abu Mansur Sabuktegin and had two younger brothers; the second one, Ismail, was born to Sabuktegin’s principal wife. On his deathbed, Subuktgein handed over the powers to his younger son Ismail. Mahmud challenged his younger brother, seized his throne and put him to house arrest. The new Sultan then ruled till his death in 1030.
- Following the Arab invasion of Sindh, it was the Turks who made inroads into India in the 11th century. The Turks are credited with establishing Muslim rule in India.
- Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India in 1001 A.D. He was the first Turkish conqueror of India.
- After defeating Jaipala, the ruler of the Hindu Shahi Dynasty, Fateh Daud of Multan, Anandpala of Nagarkot, and the Chandelas, rulers of Mathura, Kanauj, and Gwalior, he returned to Ghazni with enormous wealth.
- In 1025 AD, Mahmud launched a significant invasion against the Somnath temple on the coast of Kathiawar, and Raja Bhima Dev, the ruler of Kathiawar, and his followers fled.
Mahmud of Ghazni’s Character Estimation
- Mahmud of Ghazni was Asia’s greatest Muslim leader.
- He was a great fan of art and literature, as well as scholars such as Firdausi and Alberuni.
- Some remember him as an Islamic hero, while others remember him as a desecrator of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist shrines.
- By establishing Muslim rule over a large portion of the Indian Subcontinent, he permanently altered the nature of subcontinental politics, religion, and culture.
Battles and Outcomes during Arabs and Turks Invasion
Let us look at some important Battles Fought by Ghazni
| Year | Battle | Leader | Opponent | Winner |
| 1001 | Battle of Peshawar | Mahmud of Ghazni | Jayapala | Ghaznavids |
| 1005-6 | Siege Of Multan | Mahmud of Ghazni | Fateh Daud | Ghaznavids |
| 1008 | Battle of Balkh | Mahmud of Ghazni | Ahmad Arslan Qara Khan | Ghaznavids |
| 1009 | Battle of Chach | Mahmud of Ghazni | Anandpala | Ghaznavids |
| 1027 | Battle of the Indus River | Mahmud of Ghazni | Jats | Ghaznavids |
Army Capacity
- The army used to be recruited by far away states in adolescence. They used to form the minds of adolescents and grow their bodies, so that they could fight.
- Mahmud, in his invasion took more than 50000 slaves.
End of Ghazni
- Mahmud of Ghazni died on 30th April 1030 at the age of 58 due to Malaria and Tuberculosis.
Muhammad Ghori (1149 – 1206 AD)
- Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori (1149 – March 15, 1206), also known as Muhammad of Ghori, was the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire from 1173 to 1202, and then as the sole ruler from 1202 to 1206.
- He is credited with establishing Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent, which lasted for centuries. He ruled over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Northern India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.
- Though the Ghurid empire was short-lived, and Ghori states remained in power until the Timurids arrived, Mu’izz’s conquests laid the groundwork for Muslim rule in India.
- In 1206 Qutbuddin Aibak, a former Mu’izz slave (Mamluk), became the first Sultan of Delhi.
The First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD)
- In 1189 AD, he attacked the fortress of Bhatinda and then made his way into the kingdom of Prithviraj Chauhan.
- Muhammad of Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj in the First Battle of Tarain (near Tanewar) in 1191 AD, and Bhatinda was recovered.
The Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD)
- In the second battle of Tarain, Muhammad of Ghori defeated the combined forces of Rajput rulers led by Prithviraj.
- Qutb-ud-din Aibak was assisted in the battle and defeated Prithviraj as a prisoner, later putting him to death.
- For the first time in Indian history, Turkish rule began with the conclusion of the Second Battle of Tarain.
- Muhammad of Ghori appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as commander.
Rajput Uprisings
- Between 1193 and 1198 A.D., many Rajput mutinies were formed, and Qutb-ud-din-Aibak crushed them and took control of those areas.
- Muhammad of Ghori declared Delhi to be the capital.
The Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD)
- In 1194, Muhammad of Ghor and Jaichand of Kannauj of the Gahadavala dynasty fought the Battle of Chandawar.
- It was held in Chandawar (modern Chandawal near Firozabad), on the Yamuna River near Agra.
- Muhammad of Ghori defeated and killed Jaichandra, Prithviraj’s father-in-law and the greatest Rajput ruler of Kanauj.
- The victory in this battle gave Muhammad control of much of northern India.
Battles and outcomes
Let us look at some important battles fought by Muhammad Ghori
| Year | Battle | Opponent | Outcome |
| 1191 | First Battle of Tarain | Prithviraj Chauhan | Ghori lost |
| 1192 | Second Battle of Tarain | Prithiviraj Chauhan | Ghori won |
| 1194 | Battle of Chandwar | Jaychandra of Kannauj | Ghori Won |
Conquest of Bengal and Bihar
- Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji, one of Muhammad of Ghori’s commanders, destroyed Vikramasila in 1202 AD.
- He also destroyed Nalanda University in 1203 AD.
Army Capacity
- It was estimated that the army consisted of 15000 cavalry, 10000 infantry and thousands of rearguards.
End of Ghori
- Ghori was assassinated on 15th March 1205. The name of his assassin remains unknown
Administration Policies of Turkish Invaders
The Turks governed the vast Indian subcontinent for around 800 years. Members of the Turkish dynasty were good rulers and had the abilities of good administrators.
- The most important distinction between Turks and earlier rulers was the policy of centralization and decentralization of administration.
- The empire was divided into several provinces which were governed by Governors and councils of ministers. They also had a standing army which was controlled by a specific committee.
- The accounts of the Judicial system and tribunals are meagre and a clear picture could not be formed of the Judicial system during the Turks.
- Balban tries to unite the empire instead of just extending his boundaries. They realised consolidation is the only way to rule a vast territory like the Indian subcontinent. Feroz Shah established many royal karkhanas or factories in which thousands of slaves were employed. During his rule 300 new towns were also built.
Effects of Turkish Invaders
- It led to the establishment of Muslim rule over India. Many temples of Gods and Goddesses were destroyed.
- India’s trade with Central and west Asian countries increased thus leading to the increasing wealth of the nation.
- Several new preachers emerged who were called Sufi.
- The artisans from Italy and Iraq brought new methods of construction which were adopted by Indian artisans.
- The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built during the lifetime of Muhammad. in Kodungallur, in the district of Thrissur, Kerala.
- Turkish rulers adopted and welcomed Hindus and other unbelievers who wanted to embrace Islam. Indian people who wished to convert to Islam had to simply enter the sultan’s palace and make the two testimonies and the sultan would bestow upon them and give them a golden necklace. Turkish rulers pursued this procedure to encourage Hindus to accept Islam.
- Firoz Shah, one of the greatest sultans of Delhi, exempted everyone who converted to Islam from tax (jizya)
- According to a new study, the origins of some Indian languages can be traced back to “Anatolia” (largely in Turkey). These languages include Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali, Kashmiri, Oriya, Marwari, Bhojpuri and Urdu.
- The architecture in the Indian subcontinent flourished under Turkish domination. Forts were simple but sturdy, arches above the doorways and windows were seen instead of the beams which were used by Indians before the arrival of the Muslims. They also used tall and well-made towers or minarets in their buildings, and pillars were used for their support.
- The sultans also founded towns such as Agra, Fatehabad, Hissar Firoza (UP), and Jaunpur.
Conclusion
- The Arab invasion resulted in the formation of two separate Muslim kingdoms, Sindh and Multan. However, the Turk invasion resulted in Muslim dominion over a major area of North India.