Chapter 13 : Cholas and other South Indian Kingdoms - SAMUNDRAGYAAN EDUCATION FOUNDATION

Chapter 13 : Cholas and other South Indian Kingdoms

The Tamil Chola dynasty ruled in southern India and is considered one of the longest-ruling dynasties in history. The earliest datable references to it are in Ashoka inscriptions from the third century B.C. The dynasty ruled over various sized territories until the 13th century AD. The Cholas were based in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but at their peak from the late 9th century to the early 13th century, they ruled over a much larger area. The Cholas left behind a legacy that includes Tamil literature and the great living Chola Temples. They established a disciplined bureaucracy and pioneered a centralized form of government. The Chola school of art spread throughout Southeast Asia, influencing architecture and art.

Region of Cholas

Origin of the Cholas

Records available after the Sangam Age show that the Cholas remained in the Kaveri region as subordinates to the Pallavas.
The resurgence of the Cholas began with the conquest of the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar by Vijayalaya (850–871 CE).
In 850, he founded the Chola kingdom and built the city of Thanjavur. As a result, historians refer to them as the Later Cholas or Imperial Cholas.
The Cholas trace their ancestry to the Karikala, the most well-known of the Cholas of the Sangam age, according to copper plate documents of his successors.
The progenitor of their lineage is an eponymous king named ‘Chola,’ according to their genealogy.
In these copper plates, the names Killi, Kochenganan, and Karikalan are mentioned as members of the line.
From Parantaka I (907–955) to Kulothunga III (1163–1216), Vijayalaya’s illustrious successors brought the Cholas glory and fame.
Parantaka Chola set the tone for territorial expansion and broadened the base of governance.
rajaraja I (985–1014), the builder of the most beautiful Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur, and his son Rajendra I (1014–1044), whose naval operation extended as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated the advances made by their predecessors and went on to establish Chola hegemony in peninsular India.

Rulers of Cholas

Vijayalaya (850 CE)

The Cholas’ greatness was resurrected by the Vijayalaya dynasty. Around A.D. 850, Vijayalaya established the Imperial Chola dynasty, most likely as a vassal of the Pallava king.
Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore and made it his capital during the conflict between the Pallavas and the Pandyas.
Unfortunately, the precise relationship of Vijayalaya to the earlier Cholas is unknown.
He began his reign in the vicinity of Uraiyur, most likely as a vassal of the Pallava king.
Vijayalaya is said to have taken Tanjavur or Tanjore from the Muttaraiyar chiefs, who supported the Pandya monarch, Varagunavarman.

Aditya I (871 – 907 CE)

Around A.D. 875, Vijayalaya was succeeded by his capable son, Aditya I.
Aditya I defeated Pallava king Aparajita as well as Kongu ruler Parantaka Viranarayana.
Aditya I significantly increased the family’s power and prestige by deposing Pallava Aparajitavarman and bringing Tondamandalarh under his control around 890 A.D.
Aditya I is also credited with conquering Kongudesa and capturing Talkad in the Western Garigas.
Aditya I was a devotee of Siva, and he erected several temples in his honour.

Parantaka I (907 – 955 CE)

Aditya I was quickly succeeded by his son Parantaka I, who reigned from 907 to 955. During his reign, Cholas’ power rose to the pinnacle.
He annexed the territory of the Pandya King and quickly defeated the Vadumbas. He swept away all traces of Pallava’s power, but was defeated by Rashtrakutas.
When Parantaka I ascended the throne, the Chola realm encompassed almost the entire eastern country, from Kalahasti and Madras in the north to the Kaveri in the south, and he expanded it even further during his long reign.
Parantaka I eventually swept away all traces of Pallava power, extending his authority all the way to Nellore in the north.

Parantaka II/ Sundara Chola (957 – 973 CE)

Parantaka Chola II was a Chola emperor. He was also known as Sundara Chola because he was considered the pinnacle of male beauty.
He was the son of Arinjaya Chola and Kalyani, a princess from the Vaidumba clan, an Andhra dynasty based in Kurnool and Kadapa districts.
Parantaka II ascended the Chola throne despite the fact that his cousin Uttama Chola, the son of Gandaraditya (the elder brother of Arinjaya), was still alive and had equal, if not greater, claim to the Chola throne.
When Parantaka II became king, the Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality. The Pandyas in the south had resurrected their fortunes, defeating Chola armies and occupying their ancestral lands.

Uttama Chola (973 – 985 CE)

Uttama Chola, born Madurantaka, ascended the Chola throne around 970 CE, succeeding Parantaka Chola II.
Madurantaka Uttama Chola’s reign is placed after Aditya II, according to Rajendra Chola’s Tiruvalangadu plates.
The latter may have been a co-regent of his father Sundara Chola and appears to have died before he could formally ascend the throne.
Uttama was Parantaka II’s cousin and the son of Sembiyan Mahadevi and Gandaraditya.
He had several wives. Some of them are Orattanan Sorabbaiyar, Tribhuvana Mahadeviyar, Kaduvettigal Nandippottairaiyar, Siddhavadavan Suttiyar, and others.

Rajaraja I/ Arumolivarman (985 – 1014 CE)

Rajaraja Chola I, widely regarded as the greatest king of the Chola Empire, reigned between 985 and 1014 C.E.
By conquering the kingdoms of southern India, he laid the groundwork for the Chola kingdom’s expansion into an empire.
He was involved in numerous battles with the Chalukyas in the north and the Pandyas in the south. Rajaraja established the Chalukya Chola dynasty by conquering Vengi.
He invaded Sri Lanka and began the island’s century-long Chola occupation.

Rajendra I (1014 – 1044 CE)

Rajendra Chola I often described as Rajendra the Great, also known as Gangaikonda Chola “the bringer of the Ganges,” was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1014 to 1044 CE.
Rajendra took over as Rajaraja I’s successor in 1014 CE. Under Rajendra I, the vast Chola empire included most of modern-day south India, with the river Krishna as its northern limit, as well as Sri Lanka, the Laccadives, and the Maldives.
He led a successful military expedition to the Ganges through Orissa and Bengal, bringing Ganges water to Gangaikondacholapuram, his new capital in the Kaveri Delta.
Rajendra’s audacious campaign against the Srivijaya (the southern Malay peninsula and Sumatra) is thought to have begun around 1025 CE.
Rajendra was succeeded by Rajadhiraja I (1044 – 1052).

Rajadhiraja I (1044 – 1052 CE)

Rajendra I’s son was Rajadhiraja I (r. 1044-52). He ascended to the throne in 1044, but he had been involved with his father’s administration since 1018, and he had also distinguished himself in warfare.
Rajadhiraja I faced many difficulties upon ascending to the throne, but all opposition was quickly defeated.
He defeated the Pandya and Kerala kings who were allied with the rulers of Lanka (Ceylon) known as Vikkamabahu, Vikkamapandu, Vira-Salamegha, and Sri-Vallabha-Madanaraja.
He also fought against Somesvara I Ahavamalla, the Western Chalukya monarch (c. 1042-68).
At first, fortune appears to have favoured the Chola sovereign, but he was killed in the famous battle of Koppam in May, 1052 A.D.

Rajendra II (1054 – 1063 CE)

Rajendra Chola II reigned as the Chola emperor after his elder brother Rajadhiraja Chola I died in the 11th century.
After his elder brother Rajadhiraja Chola’s death in 1052, he is best remembered for his role in the Battle of Koppam, where he dramatically turned the tables on the Chalukyan King Someshwara I.
During his early reign, he led an expedition to Sri Lanka, during which the Sri Lanka army was routed and their king, Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa, was forced to seek refuge in a mountain fortress.
He kept the Chola Empire well-maintained, as evidenced by the distribution of his records, which show that the Chola Empire did not lose any territory during his reign by protecting it.

Virarajendra (1063 – 1067 CE)

Rajendra II’s elder brother was Vira-Rajendra. He ascended to the throne after his brother and ruled for the next seven years. He repelled the Chalukya King’s invasion and defeated him.
He reclaimed Vengi and thwarted the efforts of Ceylon’s Vijayabahu, who was attempting to drive the Cholas out of the country.
When Someswara II ascended to the throne of the Chalukyas, Rajendra made some incursions but later built friendly ties by giving his daughter to Vikramaditya.
Soon after Vira Rajendra’s death in 1070, a contest for the throne erupted, with Athirajendra, the heir apparent, ascending to the throne.
Vijayabahu established Ceylon’s independence after a brief but uneven reign.

Athirajendra (1067 – 1070 CE)

Athirajendra Chola reigned as Chola king for only a few months, succeeding his father Virarajendra Chola. Civil unrest, possibly religious in nature, characterised his reign.
Athirajendra Chola was the Chola Dynasty’s final clan. He was assassinated during a religious uprising.
After the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra, who was closely related to the Chola clan through his mother Kundavai, a daughter of Rajaraja Chola, died in 1061 CE, Athirajindra and Virarajendra Chola intervened in Vengi succession disputes.

Kulottunga I (1070 – 1122 CE)

Kulottunga Chola was a great Chola Empire king who reigned in the late 11th and early 12th centuries.
He was one of the sovereigns given the title Kulottunga, which literally means “exalter of his race.”
During his early reign, he conducted a land survey and settlement to serve as the basis for taxation.
Jayamkondar, his court poet, wrote the poem Kalingattu parani to commemorate Kulottunga Chola’s military victories.
Several land grants were given to members of the Shudra community who were generals and royal officials during his reign, indicating that he was a liberal ruler.
He established Chola dominance over Malaysia’s Sri Vijaya province Kedah.

Administration of Cholas

Tanjore was the Chola capital. The Chola Empire was divided into three major administrative units: the Central Government, the Provincial Government, and the Local Government. The Uttaramerur inscriptions shed light on the Chola administration.
The king was in charge of the administration. The Chola kingship was hereditary. According to Chola royal family tradition, the eldest son succeeded the king to the Chola throne. Yuvaraja was the name of the heir apparent.
The tiger was the royal emblem of Chola kings. A council of ministers aided the king in his work. Lower-level officials were referred to as Siruntaram, while higher-level officials were referred to as Peruntaram.
The Chola government relied heavily on land revenue as its primary source of revenue. As a tax, one-sixth of the land’s produce was collected.
Customs and tolls were the empire’s other source of revenue, in addition to land revenue. Furthermore, taxes on ports, forests, and mines aided the king’s coffers.
The Cholas had a strong army and navy. The army was made up of 70 regiments. The Chola kings paid a high price to import highly efficient Arabian horses.
The Chola king served as chief justice, as major cases were tried by the king himself. Minor village disputes were heard by the village assembly.

Society and Economy of Cholas

Landholding was the primary determinant of social status and hierarchy in the Chola period’s predominantly agrarian society.
The Brahmin landholders known as brahmadeya-kilavars were created at the top brahmadeya settlements with tax exemption, displacing (kudi neekki) the local peasants. Temples were given land known as devadana, which was tax-free, as in brahmadeyams.
During this time, the temples became a focal point for a variety of activities. The landowners of the vellanvagai villages were next in the social hierarchy.
Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land and were forced to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and vellanvagai village holders.
While landowners kept melvaram (the majority of the harvest), the ulukudi got kizh varam (lower share). Slaves (adimaigal) and labourers (paniceymakkal) remained at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
During the Chola period, both Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished.
Agriculture and industry both thrived. The reclamation of forest lands, as well as the construction and upkeep of irrigation tanks, resulted in agricultural prosperity. Kanchi’s weaving industry thrived, particularly silk weaving.
The metal works evolved as a result of the high demand for images for temples and utensils.
With trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds, commerce and trade were brisk. Gold, silver, and copper coins of various denominations were abundantly issued.
The Chola Empire had extensive commercial contacts with China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia. To strengthen the cavalry, Arabian horses were imported in large numbers.

Society and Economy of Cholas

Landholding was the primary determinant of social status and hierarchy in the Chola period’s predominantly agrarian society.
The Brahmin landholders known as brahmadeya-kilavars were created at the top brahmadeya settlements with tax exemption, displacing (kudi neekki) the local peasants. Temples were given land known as devadana, which was tax-free, as in brahmadeyams.
During this time, the temples became a focal point for a variety of activities. The landowners of the vellanvagai villages were next in the social hierarchy.
Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land and were forced to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and vellanvagai village holders.
While landowners kept melvaram (the majority of the harvest), the ulukudi got kizh varam (lower share). Slaves (adimaigal) and labourers (paniceymakkal) remained at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
During the Chola period, both Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished.
Agriculture and industry both thrived. The reclamation of forest lands, as well as the construction and upkeep of irrigation tanks, resulted in agricultural prosperity. Kanchi’s weaving industry thrived, particularly silk weaving.
The metal works evolved as a result of the high demand for images for temples and utensils.
With trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds, commerce and trade were brisk. Gold, silver, and copper coins of various denominations were abundantly issued.
The Chola Empire had extensive commercial contacts with China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia. To strengthen the cavalry, Arabian horses were imported in large numbers.

Education and Literature of Cholas

Education was also given priority. Aside from temples and maths as educational centres, several educational institutions flourished.
The inscriptions at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, and Thirubhuvanai provide information about the colleges that existed in these locations.
In addition to the Vedas and Epics, subjects such as mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions. Endowment of lands was made to run these institutions.
During the Chola period, Tamil literature reached its pinnacle. Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi wrote Sivakasintamani in the tenth century.
The Ramayana by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the two masterworks of this era. Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes Kulotunga I’s Kalinga war.
Ottakuthar’s Moovarula depicts three Chola kings’ lives. Pugalendi is the author of the Nalavenba.
The Chola period gave birth to works on Tamil grammar such as Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi, and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra.

Decline of Cholas

From the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, the Chola dynasty ruled over South India. Local chiefs began to gain prominence by the end of the twelfth century, weakening the centre.
With frequent Pandya invasions, the once-mighty empire was reduced to the status of a dependent on the far stronger Hoysalas.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, the Pandyan ruler, sacked Gangaikonda Chozhapuram, the Chola capital, in 1264.
With Kanchipuram already lost to the Telugu Cholas, the remaining Chola territories fell into the hands of the Pandyan king.
The Chola dynasty came to an end in 1279, when King Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last Chola king, Rajendra Chola III, and established Pandya rule.

The Cheras (9th to 12th Century)

The Cheras were a Dravidian sovereign dynasty from Tamil Nadu. They were the first in the area to establish a medieval ruling dynasty, ruled over vast stretches of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, respectively, in south-eastern and south-western India. There were two distinct periods in this dynasty. The Early Chera governed between the 4th and 5th centuries BC, and the Later Chera (also known as the Kulasekharas) ruled between the 8th and 12th centuries AD.

Cheras – Background

The Chera dynasty was one of the most significant dynasties of the Sangam period in regions of Tamil Nadu and the present-day state of Kerala.
In the early centuries of the Common Era, the early Cheras was known as one of the three major powers of ancient Tamilakam, alongside the Cholas of Uraiyur and the Pandyas of Madurai.
They were also referred to as ‘Keraputras,‘ and their kingdom was located to the west and north of the Pandya kingdom.
The Cheras’ history has been marked by constant conflict with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
Uthiyan Cheralathan is regarded as the earliest known ruler of the Chera line as per Tamil scriptures.
His ruling base was in Kuzhumur in Kuttanad, Kerala.
Whereas, Kulasekhara Alwar was the first king of the later Chera kingdom, which later evolved into the Kulasekhara dynasty.
For more than five centuries, there was no trace of a Chera monarch, but Kulasekhara Alwar appeared on the scene, claiming to be a descendant of the Chera.
Most likely he ruled around 800 AD from Tiruvanchikkulam in the present state of Kerala and he ruled for more than 20 years.
Then throne was held by Ramavarma; Kulasekhara Perumal, Ramar Tiruvati, or Kulasekhara Koyiladhikarikal was his name.
His tenure was marked by political turmoil and insecurity.
He was the last ruler of the Later Chera dynasty.

Important Rulers of Cheras

Uthiyan Cheralathan (1st to 3rd century AD)

Uthiyan Cheralatan, also known as Udiyanjeral was the first Chera ruler of ancient South India during the Sangam period.
He established his capital in Kuzhumur, Kuttanad (Kerala), and expanded his kingdom northward and eastward from his birthplace.
His life span is estimated to be between the first and third centuries AD.
His elephant and cavalry units are acclaimed.
At Kuzhumur, he is supposed to have had his famed royal kitchen. He is also said to have fed the Kauravas and Pandavas armies during the Mahabharata war.
In a battle named ‘Battle of Venni’ his back was injured while commanding the army with Karikala Chola and he died.

Kulashekhara Alwar (800 AD)

Maharaja Kulasekhara Alwar also known as Kulasekhara Varman or Kulasekhara Nayanar was born into the Travancore royal family (Kerala).
As a king of the later Chera Dynasty, his reign is said to have lasted from 800 to 820 AD.
Maharaja Kulasekhara Varman became a well-established ruler who not only ruled Chera land but also invaded and ruled the neighbouring Chola and Pandya lands.
He quickly rose to prominence as one of South India’s great kings. His kingdom consists of the lands of Uraiyur, Madurai and Kongu.
His administration was flawless, the people were happy and lived in peace, in his kingdom.
He later transformed into a saint by the preachings of Vaishnava saints.
In his final days, he visited the various shrine at Tirunagari, near present-day Tinivelli.
He died there, most likely at the age of 67.

Rama Varma Kulasekhara (1090–1102 AD)

Ramavarma Kulasekhara was the last ruler of medieval Kerala’s Chera Perumal dynasty.
He lived during the reigns of Chola monarchs Kulottunga I (1070–1120) and Vikrama Chola (1118–35 AD).
A considerably more deadly phase of the long struggle between Cholas and Cheras begins.
He overcomes the Cholas, but due to his hostility with the local Brahmins, he is unable to reclaim his already-fractured empire.
Internal strife undermines the state even more, and Rama Varma abdicates the crown and dies soon after.

Administration of Cheras

The Chera kingdom’s most important political institution was the monarchy. The king’s personality was linked with a great deal of pomp and ceremony.
The royal Queen also held an extremely high and privileged position, and she sat with the king at all religious events.
The Shilappadikaram mentions the ‘king’s council’ and the other ‘five assemblies’ in the administration of the Chera Dynasty.
The Chera king’s council consists of the most powerful noblemen, rajas of the districts such as the ‘ruler of Alumbil,’
The council was not only the highest advisory body, but also the final judicial tribunal which used to help the Chera king when he held his daily durbar in order to hear petitions and deliver judgments.
The Chera kingdom was divided into four divisions, the northernmost division was Cannanore and the southernmost was near Trivandrum.
The Chief Minister in the Chera dynasty served in the same manner as the powerful dewans who, until the twentieth century, administered the states of Travancore and Cochin on behalf of the native princes.
The chief priest, who served as the Nair war goddess and chief astrologer, wielded great power in determining policy.
Another important institution was the “Manram” which operated in each village of the Chera kingdom.
Its meetings were frequently held under a banyan tree by village elders, and they assisted in resolving local issues.
The ancient Chera state had an elaborate executive structure in addition to collective bodies that influence royal policy and rendered legal judgments.

Society of Cheras

The majority of the Chera people practised native Dravidian religions.
Religious practices may have primarily consisted of performing sacrifices to various gods, such as the supreme god Murugan.
Extensive offerings of meat and toddy were made to the war goddess Kottava.
Kottava is thought to have been assimilated into the current form of the goddess Durga.
The first wave of Brahmin migration to Chera territory is thought to have occurred around the third century BCE, alongside or behind Jain and Buddhist missionaries.
While the vast majority of the population adhered to native Dravidian practises, a small percentage of the population, primarily migrants, adhered to Jainism, Buddhism, and Brahmanism. Jewish and Christian populations were also known to have existed in Kerala.
Early Tamil texts do make several references to social stratification, as indicated by the use of the word kudi (“group”) to denote “caste.“
The high status accorded to women was a striking feature of Cheras society.
In Cheras society, the primary occupation of people was agriculture and pastoralism.

Economy of Cheras

The early Chera economy was primarily based on “pastoral-cum-agrarian” activities and trade in the Indian Ocean.
The emphasis on agriculture grew over time, and it served as the foundation for larger economic change.
Exchange relations with Graeco-Roman merchants, the “Yavanas,” and with north India provided significant economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom.
Spice trade with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators dates back before the Common Era.
The Periplus Maris Erythraei depicts the “trade” in Keprobotras‘ territory in great detail. According to the Periplus, Muziris was the most important centre on the Malabar Coast.
The Chera country “exported” bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls, and gems to Middle Eastern and Mediterranean kingdoms.
The Romans brought large amounts of gold in exchange for black pepper. The discovery of Roman coin hoards in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu attests to this.
The Chera dynasty was known for producing the finest quality of steel in the world.
They produce Seric Iron for the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese, and Arabs.
The steel was exported in the form of steely iron cakes known as “Wootz.” Wootz steel from India contained a high level of carbon.

Art and Architecture of Cheras

Cheras architecture is known as Dravidian architecture, and their temples are mostly octagonal or rectangular in shape, built with sandstones or granite. Their temples are divided into four sections: vimanam, mandapams, gopurams, and garbhagriha.
The gopurams, an imposing tower over the entrance, were the tallest structures in the villages and towns where they were built.
The temple was more than just a place of worship. It was a place for socialising, education, and celebration, not just of the king’s battle victories, but also of local functions and ceremonies such as marriages.
The temple was also used as a sort of emergency storage facility, and many temples also housed hospitals.
It was a place where art such as music, dance, drama, and handicrafts, was encouraged and flourished.

Some important temples of Cheras are:-

Thiruvanchikulam Shiva Temple

It was built in Kerala-style architecture during the Chera period when Lord Shiva was worshipped by Umadevi.
This temple falls under India’s archaeology, and it is one of the oldest Shiva temples in South India, built in the Thrissur district of Kodungallur.

Bhagavathi Amman Temple

This temple located in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, is also known as Bhadrakali Amman temple and it is one of the 52 Shakthi Peetam temples.
According to legend, Lord Shiva failed to keep his promise to marry her, and as a result, she turned into a demon.
The Navarathri, Kalabhavan, and Vaisakha festivals are all grandly celebrated here.

Mahavishnu Temple

It is located in Thrikkodithanam, Kottayam, Kerala, and represents five ancient shrines connected to Mahabharatham.
Kazhivetti Kallur, a strange form of art, is displayed between the pond and the eastern entrance.
It is kept as a reminder that the king bribed the caretaker and gained access to the temple, where he soon became ill and died.

Literature of Cheras

The Sangam texts are a large body of Tamil works that describe a number of Chera rulers along with Pandya and Chola rulers.
The Pathitrupathu, Akananuru, and Purananuru are the most important literatures of the Cheras.
Silapathikaram was written during their reign, when Tamil poets, Paranar, and Kongar ruled.
Some other literary works of Sangam time which are common for the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas are Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named Silappathikaram and Manimegalai.
Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiyar, is considered the first Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil grammar, it also provides insights into the time’s political and socioeconomic conditions.
Pathinenkilkanakku is a collection of eighteen works on ethics and morals. The most important of these works is Tirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar, a great Tamil poet and philosopher.

Decline of Cheras

Rashtrakutas conquered the Cheras in 805 AD, and ruled over them for a brief period between 855 and 865 AD.
During the reign of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, the Chola Chera war (“Hundred Years War”) began.
By the end of Raja Raja Chola’s reign, the Cholas had annexed the entire southern Travancore south of Kuzhithara from the Cheras.
These prolonged wars had significantly weakened the Chera power and taking advantage of this chaotic opportunity several chiefs of Cheras asserted their independence.
Later, the Cholas consolidated control over a vast area of the Chera kingdom.
Rama Varma Kulasekhara, the newly crowned King, was confronted with an unprecedented and chaotic crisis.
He turned a large portion of his army into suicide squads (dubbed “the Chavers”) and fought heroically.
In the absence of central power at Mahodayapuram, the Later Chera kingdom’s divisions quickly emerged as principalities led by separate chieftains.
The post-Chera period saw the gradual decline of Nambudiri Brahmins and the rise of the Nairs.

Yadavas (12th to 13th Century)

The Yadavas or Seuna dynasty ruled a kingdom spanning from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, comprising present-day Maharashtra, north Karnataka, and parts of Madhya Pradesh. They were initially feudatories of the Western Chalukyas but later on, they declared independence and founded a sovereign kingdom. The Yadava kingdom flourished until the early 14th century, when it was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate. Yadavas reached their peak under the rule of Simhana II. They made significant contributions to cultural activities and during their reign Marathi became the main language of the region.

Yadavas – Background

The earliest historical ruler of the Seuna/Yadava dynasty can be traced back to the mid-9th century but little is known about their early history, their 12th century court poet Hemadri records the names of the family’s early rulers.
The territory of the early Yadava rulers was in present-day Maharashtra, and several scholars have claimed that the dynasty had a “Maratha” origin.
During this time, the Marathi language emerged as the dominant language in the dynasty’s inscriptions. Prior to this, the primary languages of their inscriptions were Kannada and Sanskrit.
Hemadri’s traditional genealogy of the Yadavas traces their descent from Visnu, the Creator and Yadu were his later descendants.
The dynasty’s first historically attested ruler is Dridhaprahara (860-880 AD), who is credited with founding the city of Chandradityapura (modern Chandor). He was a feudatory of Chalukyas.
Bhillama ( 1175-1191 CE) was the first sovereign ruler of the Yadava dynasty in the Deccan region.
Bhillama forced Ballala to retreat around 1187, conquered the former Chalukya capital Kalyani, and declared himself a sovereign ruler.
He then founded the city of Devagiri, which became the new Yadava capital.

Rulers of Yadavas

Bhillama (1173 – 1191 AD)

Bhillama ( 1175-1191 CE) was the first sovereign ruler of India’s Yadava (Seuna) dynasty in the Deccan region.
Initially he ruled as a nominal vassal of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. After the Chalukya power fell, he declared sovereignty around 1187 CE and fought with the Hoysala king Ballala II for control of the former Chalukya territory in present-day Karnataka.
He defeated Ballala in a battle at Soratur around 1189 CE, but Ballala defeated him two years later.
In 1190, he took over the Chalukya capital of Kalyani and established Devagiri (now Daulatabad) as the Yadava dynasty’s capital.
Bhillama was referred to as “Chakravartin Yadava” in the Mutugi inscription from 1189-90 CE (1111 Shaka) records.

Singhana II (1200-1246 AD)

Singhana II (1200-1246 AD) was the most powerful ruler of the Yadavas.
During his reign, the Yadava empire reached its pinnacle. Neither the Hoysalas, nor the Kakatiyas, nor the Paramaras and Calukyas dared to challenge his Deccan dominance.
Sarangadeva, the author of Sangita Ratnakar, worked as an accountant in Singhana II’s court.
Two famous astrologers, Cangadeva (established an astrological college) and Anantadeva (wrote commentaries on Brahmagupta’s Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Varahamihira’s Brhajjataka), flourished in Sinhana’s court.

Raja Ramchandrahbl (1291-1309 AD)

Ramachandra was the Yadava ruler Krishna’s son.
After conducting a coup in the capital Devagiri, he usurped the throne from his cousin Ammana and became the next monarch around 1270 CE.
He enlarged his empire by fighting the Paramaras, Hoysalas, Vaghelas and Kakatiyas, all of whom were Hindus.
He faced a Muslim invasion from the Delhi Sultanate in 1296 AD, and made peace by promising to pay an annual tribute to Alauddin Khalji.
In 1308 AD, Alauddin Khalji dispatched a force to Ramachandra, led by his general Malik Kafur. Kafur’s army overpowered Ramchandra’s army and imprisoned him in Delhi.

Administration of Yadavas

The form of government was a hereditary monarchy.
Yadavas had a strong bureaucracy in place to support the administration.
King used to consult his ministers prior to issuing any land charter.
Although the monarch is the most important member of the political body, ancient political thinkers saw the Ministry or a council of advisers as a significant organ of the state.
The Yadavas appear to have a smaller ministry, with 5 or 7 members at times.
In ministry, Mahapradhana was a powerful minister who was usually in charge of a province or even a district.
Rajaguru was most likely the royal preceptor, counselling the monarch on religious matters.
Lakshmipati was the minister in charge of the treasury.
Mudraprabhu, the officer in charge of seals, Kusumarachanadhyaksha, the superintendent of floral arrangements, the commander of hill forts, and the royal hunter, are among the other royal officers of the court.

Architecture of Yadavas

The Gondeshwar temple is a Hindu temple in Sinnar, Maharashtra, India, that dates from the 11th to 12th centuries.
With the main temple dedicated to Shiva and four auxiliary shrines dedicated to Surya, Vishnu, Parvati, and Ganesha, it has a Panchayatana plan.
The Gondeshwar temple was constructed during the reign of the Yadava dynasty, though no exact dates have been found, and is thought to be from the 11th or 12th centuries.
Devagiri Fort was built during the reign of the Yadavas. It is considered as one of the strongest forts in India.

Literature during Yadavas reign

The Yadavas were the first significant dynasty in India to make Marathi their official language.
Hemadri, a Yadava court minister, strove to formalise Marathi with Sanskrit terminology in order to improve its reputation as a court language.
Saint-poet Dnyaneshwar wrote Dnyaneshwari, a Marathi-language commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
Apart from Marathi, Kannada was also the Yadavas’ court language until the late Seuna period, as evidenced by a number of Kannada inscriptions
During Simhana’s reign, Shrangadeva wrote the Sangita Ratnakara, an influential Sanskrit book on Indian music. It is considered to be the first book on music.
The encyclopaedic Sanskrit work Chaturvarga Chintamani was compiled by Hemadri. He is also supposed to have built many temples in the Hemadapanti style, which is named after him.
He published numerous publications on Vaidhyakshastra (medical science) and promoted bajra cultivation.

Decline of Yadavas

The last prominent ruler was Ramachandra.
After the attacks by Alauddin Khalji, Ramchandra became weak and finally in 1308 AD, Alauddin Khalji launched a force to Ramachandra, led by his general Malik Kafur.
Malik Kafur’s army beat the Yadava prince’s army and carried Ramachandra to Delhi.
Alauddin regarded Ramachandra with respect in Delhi, and he was reinstalled as a vassal in Devagiri.
Simhana III (Shankaradeva) was his son, who was defeated and killed after an unsuccessful rebellion against Alauddin Khalji.
This way the Yadava dynasty ended.