Chapter 13 : Cholas and other South Indian Kingdoms

The Tamil Chola dynasty ruled in southern India and is considered one of the longest-ruling dynasties in history. The earliest datable references to it are in Ashoka inscriptions from the third century B.C. The dynasty ruled over various sized territories until the 13th century AD. The Cholas were based in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but at their peak from the late 9th century to the early 13th century, they ruled over a much larger area. The Cholas left behind a legacy that includes Tamil literature and the great living Chola Temples. They established a disciplined bureaucracy and pioneered a centralized form of government. The Chola school of art spread throughout Southeast Asia, influencing architecture and art. 

Region of Cholas

Origin of the Cholas

• Records available after the Sangam Age show that the Cholas remained in the Kaveri region as subordinates to the Pallavas.
• The resurgence of the Cholas began with the conquest of the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar by Vijayalaya (850–871 CE).
• In 850, he founded the Chola kingdom and built the city of Thanjavur. As a result, historians refer to them as the Later Cholas or Imperial Cholas.
• The Cholas trace their ancestry to the Karikala, the most well-known of the Cholas of the Sangam age, according to copper plate documents of his successors.
• The progenitor of their lineage is an eponymous king named ‘Chola,’ according to their genealogy.
• In these copper plates, the names Killi, Kochenganan, and Karikalan are mentioned as members of the line.
• From Parantaka I (907–955) to Kulothunga III (1163–1216), Vijayalaya’s illustrious successors brought the Cholas glory and fame.
• Parantaka Chola set the tone for territorial expansion and broadened the base of governance.
• rajaraja I (985–1014), the builder of the most beautiful Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur, and his son Rajendra I (1014–1044), whose naval operation extended as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated the advances made by their predecessors and went on to establish Chola hegemony in peninsular India.

Chapter 12 : Major Dynasties (750 – 1200 AD) of Early Medieval India

The period 750–1200 CE in north India can be divided into two phases. Phase I (c. 750–1000 CE) – This period in north India saw the rise of three major empires: the Gurjara Pratiharas in the north, the Palas in the east, and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Phase II (c. 1000–1200 CE) – This period is also known as the Age of Conflict. The tripartite powers were divided into smaller kingdoms. The Gurjara Pratihara empire in north India disintegrated into various Rajput states ruled by various Rajput dynasties such as the Chahamanas (Chauhans), Paramaras of Malwa, Chandellas, and so on. 

The Pratiharas (8th to 10th Century)

• The Pratiharas, also known as the Gurjara-Pratiharas (8th century CE – 10th century CE), ruled over western and northern India. The fortunes of this dynasty improved under Nagabhata-I (730–760 CE), who successfully defeated Arab invaders. The most well-known king of this dynasty was Bhoja or Mihira Bhoja (c. 836-885 CE). The Pratiharas were best known for their patronage of art, sculpture, and temple construction, as well as their ongoing conflict with contemporary powers such as the Palas of eastern India and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of southern India. 

The Pratiharas – Background

• The fall of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty based at Kanyakubja (modern-day Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh state) under Harshavardhana (606-647 CE) in 647 CE caused chaos and political instability.
• Many kingdoms rose and fell, but the Pratiharas, Palas of eastern India, and Rashtrakutas of southern India eventually came to dominate. The Ayudha dynasty ruled Kanyakubja at the time (c. 9th century CE).
• The origins of the Gujarat, particularly the Gurjara-Pratiharas, are still unknown.
• The Gujarat are variously viewed as foreign people gradually assimilated into Indian society, as local people who belonged to the Gurjara land (Gurjaradesha or Gurjaratra), or as a tribal group.
• The Pratiharas, whose name is derived from the Sanskrit word pratihara (which means “doorkeeper”), are regarded as a tribal group or clan of the Gurjaras.
• In the epic Ramayana, Prince Lakshmana worked as a doorkeeper for his elder brother King Rama.
• The Pratiharas adopted this title because Lakshmana was considered their ancestor.
• Several other Gurjara families began as local officials and eventually established small principalities to the south and east of Jodhpur in modern-day Rajasthan state.
• After successfully repelling Arab invaders in the late eighth century CE, the Pratiharas rose to prominence.
• Aside from inscriptions, the sculpture and monuments erected during their reign provide important evidence of their times and rule.
• Accounts of Arab merchants who visited India during this period include Suleiman (c. 9th century CE), who visited India in the 9th century CE and left behind an account of his travels, and al-Masudi (c. 10th century CE), who visited Gujarat in 915-16 CE.
• All of these authors refer to the Pratihara Kingdom as al-Juzr (from the Sanskrit Gurjara) and attest to “the great power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire.”

Important rulers of Pratiharas

Nagabhata I

• He was the dynasty’s first significant king, and because of his accomplishments, which included defeating the Arabs, his line came to eclipse other Gurjara-Pratihara families.
• He fought Rashtrakutas, but he was defeated.
• His nephew Kakustha succeeded him, was followed by his brother Devaraja. These two ruled from around 760 to 775 CE.

Vatsaraja

• Vatsaraja (775-800 CE) conquered most of central Rajasthan after defeating the Bhandi or Bhatti clan.
• He then tried his hand at Kanyakubja politics, defeating Palas and securing the throne for his Ayudha nominee.
• Dhruva Rashtrakuta dealt him a severe blow, capturing the royal insignia that Vatsaraja had captured from the Palas and driving him to seek refuge in the Rajasthan deserts.

Nagabhata II

• Vatsaraja’s son Nagabhata II (800-833 CE) attempted to resurrect the dynasty’s fortunes. He conquered the kingdoms of Sindh (now Pakistan) and eastern India, and later defeated the Palas.
• His subsequent conquests were over the kings of various parts of Gurjaradesha in western India, including the Arabs.
• Nagabhata fought the Rashtrakutas for control of Gujarat and was eventually defeated by Rashtrakuta Govinda III (793-814 CE), losing south Gujarat and Malwa as a result.
• After some time, when he was able to regain his strength, he was able to reclaim some of his lost territories.
• He also captured Kanyakubja, effectively ending Ayudha rule. This city now became the capital of Pratihara.
• His son Ramabhadra (833-836 CE) succeeded him, and his reign saw some territorial recovery.

Mihir Bhoja

• He ruled for nearly 50 years as the grandson of Nagabhata II.
• Despite being defeated by the Palas, Rashtrakutas, and Kalachuris at first, he was able to gather his forces and launch a counter strike.
• With the help of his Chedi and Guhila feudatories, he defeated the Palas and possibly the Rashtrakutas.
• He was able to annex many parts of the Pala Empire in eastern India and reclaim territories in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh, greatly expanding his empire.

Mahendrapala I

• Mahendrapala I (885-910 CE) expanded on his father Bhoja’s empire and conquered new territory in the east.
• He was defeated by the king of Kashmir and ceded some territories in Punjab to him.
• Following his death, a civil war erupted between his son Mahipala and his half-brother Bhoja II.

Mahipala I

• Mahipala I (c. 912-944 CE) was able to secure the throne but was defeated by the Rashtrakutas, allowing the Palas to exploit the situation and retake some of their former territories from the Pratiharas.
• Mahipala attempted to recover from these losses and did reclaim some lost lands, but his conquest plans were thwarted once more by the Rashtrakutas in later years.
• Mahendrapala II (c. 944-948 CE) and his successors made no significant contributions during their reigns. These kings ruled more like petty kings, with little involvement in daily affairs.

Rajyapala

• The Rashtrakuta king Krishna III defeated this Pratihara ruler.
• Rajyapala reigned from 960-1018 CE.
• Mahmud Ghazni raided Kannauj, forcing Rajyapala to flee the battlefield. Vindhyadhar Chandela assassinated him.

Yashpala

• He was the Pratihara dynasty’s final ruler.
• He reigned from 1024-1036 CE.
• Kannauj was conquered by the Gandhavalas by 1090 CE.

Wars with Palas and Rashtrakutas

• The Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom’s expansion involved constant conflicts with other contemporary powers such as the Palas and the Rashtrakutas, which became known as the “tripartite struggle”.
• Control of Kanyakubja was important because “since the days of Harsha, Kanauj was considered the symbol of sovereignty of north India, control of Kanauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture.”
• The Ayudhas who ruled Kanyakubja were thought to be weak, so the Palas intervened in their politics, backing one candidate for the throne and treating the ‘king’ there as a feudatory.
• The Pratiharas, the Palas’ enemies, now had an excuse to attack Kanyakubja (also known as Mahodaya at the time) and support their own candidate for kingship, as well as fight the Palas on their behalf, as Vatsaraja did.
• The Rashtrakutas proved more than a match for the Pratiharas, who thwarted their attempts to control the upper Gangetic valley and Malwa.
• The rivalry over Malwa and Gujarat began “as early as the middle of the eighth century AD, when the Rashtrakuta and Gurjara-Pratihara empires were both just founded”.
• They were defeated by the Rashtrakuta emperors Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 CE) and Govinda III (793-814 CE). Al-Masudi “refers to the Rashtrakuta-Pratihara enmity that was the epoch’s defining feature.”
• Dhruva’s victory over Vatsaraja allowed the Palas to reassert their power and install their own candidate on the Kanyakubja throne.
• Despite Rashtrakuta defeats, Nagabhata II and later Bhoja rebuilt their empire, with Kanyakubja becoming and remaining the Pratihara capital. Long into the 10th century CE, the Rashtrakutas continued to engage and defeat successive Pratihara kings.
• Geographical considerations also played a role in the hostilities that erupted between these disparate kingdoms.
• Control over the areas linked by the Ganges river, “the highway of traffic linking up the entire country from Bengal to mid-India,” was critical for any kingdom seeking greater prosperity in terms of commerce and economy.
• Similarly, the Pratiharas retained control of Gujarat due to the need to control south-western trade routes and seaborne commerce.
• The Rashtrakutas couldn’t afford to stay in the north for long because it was so far away from their base areas in the south.
• Much of their campaigns were raids, carried out for the sake of prestige, obtaining booty, garnering imperial glory, and establishing their own pre-eminence over the dominant dynasties in India.

Religion of Pratiharas

• It is worth noting that this was the age of the advancement of the Brahmanical religion.
• The important sects of Brahmanism where the Brahmin enjoyed first class were Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta, and Surya. This was the age of the advancement of the Brahmanical religion.
• The construction of temples and statues was considered a sacred duty by the followers of these sects. The temples were supported by donations from kings and other wealthy individuals.
• Shaivas worshipped Siva under various names such as Indra, Sankar, Pashupati, Yoga swami, Shambhu, and so on.
• Siva was worshiped by kings like Vatsaraja, Mahendrapala, and Trilochanapala.

Administration of Pratiharas

• In terms of administration, much of the Gupta Empire’s (3rd century CE – 6th century CE) and Harshavardhana’s ideas and practices were retained. The king was supreme and was assisted by a number of ministers and officials.
• Many minor kings and dynasties ruled as vassals of the king and were expected to be loyal, pay a fixed tribute to the king, form matrimonial alliances with the royal family, and supply troops when needed.
• Some areas were administered directly by the center and were divided into provinces (bhukti) and districts (mandala or vishaya).
• They were governed by a governor (uparika) and a district head (vishayapati), who were tasked with collecting land revenue and maintaining law and order with the assistance of army units stationed in their respective areas.
• The village, as in the past, remained the basic unit of administration, with the headman and other officials paid through land grants.
• However, many vassals, such as the Paramaras and Chandellas of modern-day Bundelkhand, aspired to independence and frequently fought against the king (lying in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh).

Literary Work of Pratiharas

• Despite constant warfare, the Pratiharas were able to provide stability to their subjects while also patronizing the arts and literature.
• According to Al-Masudi, Juzr had 18,000,000 villages, cities, and towns and was about 2000 km long and 2000 km wide.
• Rajashekhara, a poet who collaborated with Mahendrapala and Mahipala, left a legacy of notable works.
• Many Hindu temples and buildings were constructed, many of which still stand today.
• “From the two centuries of Gurjara-Pratihara rule until 1019 AD, Kanauj became one of the most important centres of art, culture, and commerce in the Indian subcontinent.”
• The loss of Gujarat, as well as the resulting loss of overseas trade, particularly to Western Asia, had an impact on economic conditions.
• In the Ganga valley, billon coins, or coins with a high percentage of base metal content, were issued.

Art and Architecture of Pratiharas

• The Gurjara-Pratihara rulers were avid supporters of the arts, architecture, and literature. Mihir Bhoj was the dynasty’s most notable ruler.
• Viswaroopa form of Vishnu and the Marriage of Siva and Parvati from Kannauj are two notable sculptures from this period.
• Beautifully carved panels can also be found on the walls of the temples at Osian, Abhaneri, and Kotah.
• The extraordinary Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior fort is the oldest large-scale Pratihara work still standing.
• The Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior is dedicated to a Shakti cult and consists of an elevated rectangular mula prasada, a double oblong shikhara, and a closed portico.

The decline of the Pratiharas

• Pratiharas’ military power declined after Bhoja, and they suffered defeat after defeat under successive kings.
• When Indra III (915-928 CE) defeated Mahipala and completely devastated Kanyakubja in the early 10th century CE, and when Krishna III (939-967 CE) invaded again in 963 CE, the Rashtrakutas dealt severe blows.
• The Rajput feudatories of the Pratiharas posed a further threat, as “the descendants of Mihira Bhoja had little of Gurjaradesha left in their hands, for each of the feudatories was seeking greater power for himself at the expense of his suzerain.”
• Due to the political fabric of India at the time, nearly every king, when conquered, would accept to be a vassal of the conqueror, but would constantly strive for independence and go for it at the slightest opportunity.
• The Pratiharas were no different. Because of the central power’s weakness and attacks on the capital, their feudatories and provincial governors became assertive and eager to declare independence.
• As a result, the empire disintegrated and was reduced to a kingdom encompassing only the Kanyakubja region.
• The Pratihara kingdom remained subdued until the early 11th century CE, when it was finally conquered by the Ghaznavid Turks.
• Their rule was only temporary, and the area was eventually taken over by Indian rulers, most notably the Gahadavala Dynasty (c. 1080-1194 CE).

The Palas (8th to 11th Century)

• Pala empire was founded by Gopala in 750 CE, and they controlled Bengal and Bihar for nearly 400 years, from the eighth to the twelfth centuries. Rulers of this dynasty had ‘Pala’ in their name, which means ‘protector’ i.e. it was called the Pala dynasty. In the Indian subcontinent, this empire was one of the most powerful Buddhist imperial powers. The Palas were best known for their patronage of art, sculpture, painting and university construction, as well as their ongoing conflict with contemporary powers such as the Pratiharas of western India and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of southern India. 

Origin of Pala Empire

• Gopala established the Pala Empire in the eighth century.
• After Harshvardhana’s death, many kingdoms rose to dominance in Northern and Eastern India in the 7th century.
• The ruler of Gauda Kingdom i.e. Shashanka was the contemporary of King Harshavardhana and between 590 and 625 CE, he controlled the Bengal area.
• Soon after the death of Gauda King Shashanka, lawlessness erupted in the country’s northern and eastern parts, allowing the Palas to seize control and establish the Pala Empire.
• The Pala Empire began its authority in the states of Bihar and Bengal, but the borders of the Pala dynasty’s ruled provinces changed frequently due to the kingdom’s various collapses and revivals.
• The Bengal region was in a state of revolt after the fall of the Shashanka’s empire, and there was no central authority to rule the state, so Gopala ascended the throne as the first emperor.
• For nearly four centuries, the Palas dynasty ruled over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Orissa and Assam, with numerous ups and downs.
• Sulaiman, an Arab trader, attests to their influence. Sulaiman described the Pala empire as Ruhma (or Dharma), short for Dharmapala.
• The Pala monarchs were at war with their neighbours, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, although his armies outnumbered his opponents.
• ‘It was customary for the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000 elephants,’ Sulaiman added.
• In Bengal’s history, the Pala Empire is regarded as the ‘Golden Age.’

Major Rulers of Pala Empire

Gopala (750–770 AD)

• He was the founder of the Pala dynasty and the first emperor of the dynasty. He was the son of a warrior named Vapaata.
• In a revolution to end the Matsyanyaya, the people elected Gopala as their monarch.
• The Pala dynasty had nearly conquered most of Bihar and Bengal at the time of Gopala’s death.

Dharmapala (770–810 AD)

• In around 770 AD, Dharmapala succeeded Gopala as monarch. He embarks on a plan to expand his empire.
• During his reign, a tripartite struggle occurred between the Pala, Prathihara, and Rashtrakuta dynasties for control of Kanauj.
• He defeated Kanauj’s king Indrayudha and set his nominee Chakrayudha on the throne.
• At Kannauj, Dharmapala staged a large darbar, which was attended by a number of rulers. He was unable to maintain his post.
• Dhruva, a Rashtrakuta king, defeated Dharmapala in a fight in Monghyr (Bihar) and Dharmapala reign came to an end in 810 CE.

Devapala (810–850 AD)

• Devapala, Dharmapala’s son, succeeded him as monarch. He was the most powerful Pala king.
• Assam and Utkala (Orissa) were two of the states he conquered.
• He had defeated the ruler of the Rashtrakuta empire, Amoghavarsha.
• He ruled till 850 CE.
• The Pala dynasty began to fall steadily once Devapala’s reign ended.
• Though his successors, Mahendrapala and Shurapala, kept the Pala kingdom together, the following weak kings of the Pala empire, such as Narayanapala and Vigrahapala II, laid the way for the Pala empire’s downfall.

Mahipala I

• In 988 CE, Mahipala I, the Pala dynasty’s emperor, ascended to the throne.
• He rebuilt the Pala empire’s strength. He reclaimed Bengal’s northern and western regions, north and south Bihar.
• However, following his rule, the Pala kingdom began to fall once more.
• And finally, the Hindu Sena dynasty ruler ‘Vijayasena’ toppled the Pala Empire in the 12th century.

Rampala

• He was the last powerful Pala king.
• During the reign of his son Kumarapala, the kingdom fell apart.
• He was the Pala dynasty’s fifteenth ruler.
• Sandhyakar Nandi, his court poet, wrote the novel Ramacharitam in Sanskrit with two meanings.

Administration of Pala Empire

• The Pala dynasty created its administration model based on the Gupta empire’s administrative practices.
• The Pala Dynasty had a monarchical administrative structure. All power was concentrated in the hands of the king or monarch.
• Parameshwar, Paramvattaraka, or Maharajadhiraja were offered to the Pala rulers.
• In the Pala dynasty, the throne was passed down through generations.
• The King was aided by a group of ministers who were hereditary and nominated by the King from prominent families.
• Some provinces in the Pala empire were under the direct rule of the King, while others were under the control of Vassal chiefs.
• The regions governed by the Vassal chiefs were granted autonomy. They provided the King with fixed contributions and troops.
• The Pala empire’s lands that were managed directly were divided into many provinces known as Bhukti and governed by officials known as Uparika. They collected the levy and preserved the province’s law and order.
• Apart from that, Pala monarchs are also thought to have been astute diplomats, forming alliances with many cultures in order to encourage new trade routes.
• They maintained strong cultural and trading ties with the Middle East and Southeast Asia.

Religion of Palas

• Buddhism and Hinduism were the dominant religions throughout the Pala Dynasty.
• They were largely Buddhists and practiced Mahayana Buddhism.
• After King Harsha Vardhana’s reign, Buddhism was on the verge of extinction. However, the arrival of the Palas reignited interest in Buddhism across the Indian subcontinent.
• Shaivism and Vaishnavism were also patronized by them. The King made land concessions to brahmanas and priests.
• Palas built great monasteries throughout their reign.
• One of the major viharas built by the Pala emperors is Somapura Mahavihara (now in Bangladesh).
• The spread of Mahayana Buddhism occurred during the Palas in nations such as Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Indonesia.
• During the Pala dynasty in Bengal, Bihar, and Assam, a number of temples were built. For example, in Assam, they built the Hayagriva avatar temple.
• Many coins discovered during their period represented Shiva worship, Vishnu worship, and Saraswati worship.
• Therefore, the long Pala period and the chosen religion during the Pala Dynasty resulted in a combination of Hindu and Buddhist culture.

Palas as Patrons of Education

• Palas were not merely conquerors; they were also religious patrons who had made significant investments in education.
• Dharmapala, the emperor, renovated the Nalanda university, built the Vikramasila university and Somapura Mahavihara, all of them were Buddhist academic centres.
• Nalanda university became well-known around the world during Pala’s reign.
• Nalanda had about 10,000 students and teachers during this time period, who came from all throughout India, as well as Central Asia, China, Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka.
• It was one of the largest educational institutions in the world at the time and it provided education in a variety of subjects.
• Dharmapala gave the royal income from two hundred nearby villages to cover Nalanda University’s expenses.
• Vikramasila university competed directly with Nalanda University.
• It had over 100 faculty and over 1000 students listed.
• Vikramasila university was well-known for providing specialist Tantra training (Tantrism).
• Atia Dipankara, a creator of Tibetan Buddhism’s Sharma traditions, was one of the university’s most well-known graduates.
• This university thrived for 400 years until it was destroyed by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji’s soldiers in the year 1200.
• Somapura Mahavihara (now in Bangladesh) university was founded by Dharmapala in Bengal in the late eighth century, and it flourished for 400 years until the 12th century.
• It was a prominent learning centre for Bauddha Dharma (Buddhism), Jina Dharma (Jainism), and Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism).
• This university had an impact on Buddhist architecture as far as Cambodia.
• It is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Palas Architecture

• Several mahaviharas, stupas, chaityas, temples, and forts were built by Palas.
• The majority of the architecture was religious, with Buddhist art dominating the first two hundred years and Hindu art dominating the following two hundred.
• Nalanda, Vikramashila, Somapura, Traikutaka, Devikota, Pandita, and Jagaddala vihara are famous among the mahaviharas.
• At these centres, which also featured workshops for the casting of bronze figures, a large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to Buddhist subjects were produced.
• Dharmapala’s construction of the Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur (Bangladesh), is one of the largest Buddhist viharas in India, and its architectural layout has impacted the architecture of countries such as Myanmar and Indonesia.
• Palas constructed temples also which are noted for displaying the Vanga style.
• At Kashi, Mahipala constructed hundreds of temples and buildings.
• At Gaya, there is a Vishnupada temple with a hemispherical mandap that looks like an umbrella.

Palas Paintings

• The Pala School of Painting is one of India’s earliest examples of miniature painting.
• They are considered as the founder of the Miniature form of painting in India.
• Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila, and Somarupa Buddhist monasteries (mahaviharas) were significant centres of Palas school of painting.
• The artworks are in the shape of a vast number of palm-leaf manuscripts depicting Buddhist themes.
• Pala style is naturalistic, evoking the ideal shapes of contemporary bronze and stone sculpture while also evoking a sense of Ajanta’s classical art.
• The manuscript of the Astasahasrika-Prajnaparamita(The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand) is the best example.

Palas Sculpture

• Under the patronage of Pala monarchs, the Gupta sculptural tradition reached unprecedented heights.
• The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as an unique period of Indian art and the Bengal sculptors achieved new heights and are known for their aesthetic genius.
• During the Pala period, a new type of stone and bronze sculpture evolved and they were known for their bronze casting.
• Under the Palas, the art absorbed many local traits and lasted until the end of the 12th century.
• Stone and copper statues were erected in huge numbers, mostly in monastery places such as Nalanda, Bodh Gaya, and others.
• The majority of the sculptures were inspired by Buddhism. Aside from Buddha, Hindu gods and goddesses such as Surya, Vishnu, Ganesh, and others were sculpted.
• In most cases, only the frontal aspects of the body are depicted in the sculptures.
• Slim and graceful forms, as well as exquisite jewellery, were hallmarks of the Palas style.

Conclusion

• The Palas ruled over East India for nearly 400 years, from the eighth to the twelfth centuries, and they were ardent supporters of Mahayana Buddhism. The Pala monarchs were at war with their neighbors, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. In Bengal’s history, the Pala Empire is regarded as the ‘Golden Age.’ This empire is known for political stability, economic growth and art & architecture development.

The Senas (11th to 12th Century)

• The Sena Dynasty ruled Bengal from approximately 1097 to 1225 CE. The Sena dynasty ruled the majority of the Indian subcontinent’s northeast. Previously, the Pala dynasty ruled over both Bihar and Bengal. The Sena rulers were devout Hindus, as opposed to the Palas, who were Buddhists. They originated in the south Indian region of Karnataka, according to the Deopara inscription. The inscription mentions Samantha Sen, one of the southern founders, whose successor was Hemanta Sena, the first of the family to be given royal epithets in the family records, and who seized power from the Palas and styled himself king in around 1095 CE. His successor, Vijaya Sena, was instrumental in laying the groundwork for the dynasty.

The Senas – Features

• During the 11th and 12th centuries, Senas ruled from Bengal.
• The Sena Dynasty traces its origins to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
• Vijayasena deposed Madanapala (the last ruler of the Pala dynasty) and established the Sena dynasty. He was the genuine founder of the Sena kingdom.
• His son, Ballala Sena (1160-1178), instituted the social reforms known as Kulinism in Bengal.
• Lakshamanasena succeeded Ballal Sena. This dynasty’s greatest ruler was Lakshmana Sena.
• He became weak near the end of his reign. Within his kingdom, there were signs of disintegration.
• Muhammad Bhaktiyar Khalji dealt the Sena kingdom its final blow (1204 AD).

Important Rulers of Senas

Vijaya Sena (1095-1158 CE)

• Founder of the Sena dynasty, who ruled over Bengal for over 60 years and brought peace and prosperity.
• It is thought that he took advantage of the Samantachakra revolt in the Varendra region during Mahipala II’s reign and gradually consolidated his position in western Bengal.
• During Madanapala’s reign, he eventually became self-sufficient.
• He defeated Bhojavarman and took control of Vanga.
• Vijaya Sena was divided into two capitals: Vijaypura and Vikrampura.
• The famous poet Sriharsha wrote Vijay Prasasti (Eulogy of Vijay) in memory of Vijaya Sena. On the copper plate in Barrackpore, he is referred to as Maharajadhiraja.
• The Sena kings, particularly Vijaya Sena, is lauded in the Deopara Prasasti stone inscription.

Ballal Sena (1158-1179 CE)

• Ballal Sena’s kingdom was divided into five provinces: Banga, Barendra, Bagri (possibly a portion of lower Bengal), Mithila, and Rar. He also made Nabadwip the capital.
• Ballal Sena is credited with reviving orthodox Hindu practices in Bengal, particularly with the establishment of the reactionary tradition of Kulinism (Hindu caste and marriage rules).
• His wife Ramadevi was the princess of the western Chalukyan empire, demonstrating the friendly relations between the two kingdoms.
• Adbhutsagara and Danasagara are two of his works.

Lakshmana Sena (1178-1207 CE)

• The Sena dynasty reached its apex under the capable leadership of Lakshmana Sena.
• His kingdom included Odisha, Bihar, Assam, and possibly Varanasi as well. He also defeated Jayachandra, ruler of the Gahadavala dynasty.
• Seven copper plate inscriptions from his reign mention him as a great military leader and patron of learning.
• These inscriptions also mention his victories over the kings of Kamrupa, Gaur, Kalinga, and Kashi. To commemorate his achievements, he built pillars in Allahabad, Benares, and Puri.
• He was Bengal’s first ruler who expanded his power beyond Benares. Gaya’s ruler is mentioned in some inscriptions.
• He was given the titles Ariraja-Madana-Sankara, as well as Gaureswara and Paramvaishnava.
• In contrast to Ballal Sena and Vijaya Sena, who were Shaivas, the title Paramvaishnava indicates that he was a devout Vaishnav. His official proclamations began with a prayer to Narayana.
• Poets such as Jayadeva (the famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and author of Geeta Govinda), Umapati Dhar, Dhoyi, and others graced his court.
• He was a learned man who finished the work of Adbhut Sagara that his father Ballal Sena had begun.
• However, during his final years in power, the Sena dynasty weakened and began to disintegrate.

Religion of Senas

• The Senas’ rule in Bengal is commonly associated with the emergence of orthodox Hinduism in a Hindu-Buddhist society that had long enjoyed peaceful coexistence of the two religions, resulting in an atmosphere of amalgamation of the two.
• The onslaught on Buddhists in Bengal is thought to have begun during this time period, resulting in large-scale Buddhist migration to neighbouring countries.
• After Sena’s reign, Buddhism declined in India.
• Bhaktiyar Khalji pillaged many Buddhist universities. (Nalanda, Odantapuri, and Vikramshila).

Administration of Senas

• The Pala system of administration was maintained by the Senas. Even under the Senas, Bhuktis, Vishayas, Mandals, and so on remained administrative divisions.
• Patakas and Chaturakas are the names of the smallest administrative divisions that appear frequently in Sena inscriptions and literature.
• Among the royal officers, the names Bhuktipati, Mandalpati, and Vishayapati appear frequently.
• The Palas Prime Minister was now referred to as Mahamantri. The Sena kings used to call themselves Aswapati, Narapati, Rajaprayadhapati, and so on.
• Under the Senas, the Sandhivigrahika of the Palas was renamed Mahasandhivigrahika.
• Apart from these, the Sena kings appointed Mahamudradhkrita and Mahasarbadhkrita as new officers.
• Similarly, the highest judge was known as Mahadharmadhyakshya. Military officers were also given new names under the Senas.

Literary Works of Senas

• The Sena rulers were also avid supporters of literature. Bengali experienced significant growth during the Pala and Sena dynasties.
• The Sena period also saw the rise of Sanskrit literature.
• Pancharatnas were patronized by Lakshmanasena in his court.
  • Govardhana
  • Jayadeva
  • Sarana
  • Umapathi
  • Dhoyi
• Jayadeva is the author of the romantic devotional songs known as Gita Govindam was his most famous book.
• The Radha Krishna cult was founded by Jayadeva. Pavandutam was written by Dhoyi.
• Ballal Sena was an author, according to a Sena epigraph. In 1168, he published Danasagara. And in 1169, he began but did not complete Adbhutasagara.

Art and Architecture of Senas

• The architectural style of the Sena dynasty is a continuation of the Pala style of architecture. There is no discernible change in architectural form.
• The Sena dynasty is well-known for erecting Hindu temples and monasteries, such as the renowned Dhakeshwari Temple in what is now Dhaka, Bangladesh.
• In Kashmir, the dynasty is also thought to have built the Sankara Gaureshwara temple.

Decline of Senas

• Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, one of Mohammad Ghori’s generals, attacked Nabadwip and invaded Bihar and Bengal, annexing them to their Islamic kingdom at the beginning of the 13th century (c. 1203 – 1204 CE).
• He conquered northwest Bengal, leaving eastern Bengal under Sena control.
• However, by the middle of the 13th century, the Deva dynasty had completely overthrown the Sena, and with it, the Sena’s rule declined completely.

Conclusion

• For just over a century, the Sena Dynasty ruled Bengal. The dynasty’s emergence supplanted the Palas in Bengal near the end of the 11th century AD. In 1203 AD, Bakhtiyar Khalji, the military general of the Ghurid dynasty, invaded Bengal and defeated the Lakshmana Sena. The Deva Kingdom ruled over Eastern Bengal after the collapse of the Sena Dynasty.

The Rajaputas (647 – 1200 AD)

• With the downfall of Harsha, Rajput dominance began in the 7th century and continued till the 12th century. The name Rajaputas was derived from the word “Rajputra” meaning “ruler’s son.” Their bravery, loyalty, and royal status were adored. They were the battle-hardened warriors who managed the governing functions. They belonged to a patrilineal clan of western, central, and northern India and claimed to be descendants of North India’s ruling military aristocracy. 

Rajputs – Background

• There are several theories as to how Rajputs came to be. They were thought to be the offspring of foreign invaders and Indian Kshatriyas.
• The invaders were Indianized and assimilated into Indian society. Many Rajput legends support this theory.
• As a result, it is possible to say that various elements contributed to the formation of the Rajput clan.
• The Rajputs are divided into 36 clans and each clan belongs to one of three basic lineages (vanshas). These are Suryavansh, Chandravanshi and Agnivanshi.
• Suryavanshi Rajput clan is related to Surya, the Hindu Sun God. It is known as the Solar Dynasty in English.
• Chandravanshi Rajput clan to be a descendant of Chandra (the moon). In English, the Chandravanshi lineage is known as the Lunar Dynasty.
• Agnivanshi Rajputs assert that they are descendants of Agni, the Hindu god of fire.
• Each of these Vanshas or lineages is broken into multiple clans or kula, each of which claims direct patrilineage from a remote but common male ancestor who allegedly belonged to that Vansha.

Major Clans of Rajputs

Chauhans of Delhi-Ajmer (7th Century – 1192)

• The Chauhan dynasty flourished from the eighth to the twelfth century AD.
• Delhi, Ajmer, and Ranthambhor were all under the control of the Chauhans.
• They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest of Rajputana, and at Kota in the east.
• The Pratiharas, Paramaras, and Chalukyas were the other three important Rajput dynasties of that time.
• Prithviraj III is known as the Chauhan king of Delhi who repelled the Muslim onslaught in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
• The following year, Prithviraj was beaten in a second battle at Tarain.

Chandellas of Bundelkhand (831-1202 AD)

• Chandellas ruled over central India for approximately 500 years between the 9th and the 13th centuries.
• As they dominated most of Bundelkhand, they were also known as the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (now called Bundelkhand).
• Chandellas descended from the Gurjar, Huna, and central Asian tribes who crossed the northwest frontier and settled in this territory after fighting battles.
• They belong to the Chandravanshi lineage of Rajputs.

Rathors of Kannauj (1090-1194 AD)

• The Rathors of Kanauj or Gahawars ruled over Kanauj for more than a century (1090 -1194 CE).
• They ruled over the regions of Banaras, Ayodhya, and Kanauj.
• During the time of Govinchandra, Rathors of this dynasty reached at the peak of power.
• He ruled for a long time (1112–1155) and was successful in restoring the Kanauj kingdom’s splendour.
• Jaichanda was the last great ruler of this dynasty and killed by Muhammad of Ghori after that Rathors of Kanauj fell down.

Paramaras of Malwa (790-1150 AD)

• Paramaras were successors of the Rashtrakutas, who controlled Malwa from the early ninth century with their capital at Dhar.
• Upendra or Krishnaraja was the founder of the Paramara dynasty.
• There were other branches of Paramaras ruling in Rajputana, including Mount Abu, Bhinmal, and others, but the Paramaras of Malwa (Dhar) were the most powerful of all.
• Their capital was originally in Ujjain, but it was eventually moved to Dhara (both Ujjain and Dhara are in Madhya Pradesh).
• The last known Paramara king, Mahalakadeva, was defeated and killed by the forces of Delhi’s Alauddin Khalji in 1305 CE.

Sisodias of Mewar (8th Century – 1930 AD)

• The Sisodia of Mewar, popularly known as the “House of Mewar,” was one of the many Rajput clans who ruled the Kingdom of Mewar, afterwards known as the Udaipur State during the British Raj.
• After defeating the Tughluq sultans of Delhi, Hammir Singh, a descendant of this Guhila branch dynasty, restored the Kingdom of Mewar.
• Famous rulers of this dynasty are Maharana Kumbha (1433-1468), Maharana Sanga (1509-1528), Maharana Pratap Singh (1540- 1597), Amar Singh I (1597-1620).

Senas (1097- 1225 AD)

• During the 11th and 12th centuries, Senas ruled from Bengal.
• The Sena Dynasty traces its origins to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
• Vijayasena deposed Madanapala (the last ruler of the Pala dynasty) and established the Sena dynasty. He was the genuine founder of the Sena kingdom.
• His son, Ballala Sena (1160-1178), instituted the social reforms known as Kulinism in Bengal.
• Lakshamanasena succeeded Ballal Sena. This dynasty’s greatest ruler was Lakshmana Sena.
• He became weak near the end of his reign. Within his kingdom, there were signs of disintegration.
• Muhammad Bhaktiyar Khalji dealt the Sena kingdom its final blow (1204 AD).

Pratihara of Kannauj (730-1036 AD)

• The Paramaras are Agnivanshi Rajputs who lived near the Solankis.
• They began as Rashtrakuta feudatories and rose to power in the 10th century.
• They dominated Malwa and the region near the present-day Gujarat-Rajasthan border.
• This dynasty produced Bhoja, the legendary Malwa monarch.
• Due to battle with the Solankis in the 12th century, the Paramaras lost power and surrendered to a Delhi sultanate attack in 1305.

The Rashtrakutas of Manyakhera (753-982 CE)

• They were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami and claimed genealogy from Satyaki (the Yadava monarch of Mahabharata).
• The kingdom was founded by Dantidurg (752–756), who established his capital at Malkhand/Malkhet (Gulbarga district, Karnataka).
• Govinda III (793-814) and Amoghvarsha were the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers (814-878).
• Amoghvarsha ruled for 64 years, yet he preferred religion and literature over battle because of his nature.
• He was an author himself, having written Kavirajamarga, the first Kannada book on poetry.
• One of the Rashtrakuta kings Krishna I erected the magnificent rock-cut Shiva temple at Ellora.

Administration of Rajputs

• The Rajput states’ administration was based on a caste system.
• Only those from the upper caste were allowed to work in the administration, even the king was a member of this caste.
• In the early phase, if the king behaved against the interests of that estate or caste-group, the leaders may remove him from power and replace him with someone from another caste-group.
• Later on, the king became the state’s supreme head and controlled the whole executive, judicial, and military government.
• The ministerial council served as a consulting forum on all major polity issues.
• Ministerial positions were almost always hereditary and officials became increasingly powerful as a result of the combination of hereditary and feudal positions.

Religion of Rajputs

• The majority of Rajputs were Hindus while some of the dynasties also followed Islam and Sikhism.
• Many Rajput clans worship Karni Mata as a family deity and link her to their community’s existence or survival in difficult times.
• Lord Shiva and Goddess Durga are also famous deities among Hindu Rajputs.
• During the medieval period in India, few Rajputs switched from Hinduism to Islam while keeping Hindu surnames such as Rana and Chauhan and also keeping many of their Hindu rituals.
• During the Muslim invasion, the Rajputs were the primary defenders of Hindu religion and culture.

Art and Architecture of Rajputs

• Rajput architecture is notable for the many Rajput rulers’ forts and palaces.
• Rajput Architecture encompasses a wide range of structures that can be broadly classified as either secular or religious.
• The scales of the secular structures vary. Temples, forts, stepwells, gardens, and palaces are examples.
• Due to the Islamic invasions, the forts were specially built for defence and military purposes.
• Mughal architecture had a significant impact on indigenous Rajput art and architecture.
• Rajput architecture includes city or town planning as well. Several rulers built cities, and the planning was meticulous.
• The Rajputs constructed the Rathas of Mahabalipuram, the Kailash temple at Ellora, and the Elephanta engravements between 600 and 900 AD.

Literary Works of Rajputs

• During the Rajput period, many poems were produced. Gitagovinda by Jayadeva, Keerthanarjuneeya by Bharavi, Ravanavada by Bharthruhari, and Kavya Meemamse by Mahendrapala were authored.
• Important dramas were composed, including Rajashekara’s Bala Ramayana, Bhavabhuti’s Mahaveeracharitha and Uthararamacharitha.
• Kalhana’s Rajatharangini, Jayanika’s Prithiviraja Vijaya, and Hemachandra’s kumarapla charitha are among the Rajputs’ other noteworthy works.
• Notable biographies include Chand Bardahi’s Prithiviraja Raso and Balalla’s Bhoja Prabandha.
• Rajashekhara, a poet who worked during Rajput’s clan Pala, left a significant body of work.
• Sandhakar Nandi (1084 – 1155 AD), Pala’s court poet, wrote “Ramacharita”.
• Both King Munja and King Bhoja were poets who wrote numerous works of literature.

Decline of Rajputs

• Rajputs are known for their bravery and loyalty. They reigned supreme from the sixth to the twelfth centuries and were dethroned by Sultanate.
• Rajputs did not believe in central authority and were frequently at odds with one another.
• The constant feud among themselves, lack of unity, old military practices, and weak espionage system are some of the reasons for their decline.
• That’s why Rajputs, who were brave fighters and capable warriors, were defeated by a small group of Muslim foreign invaders.
• Major political reasons for the decline were that they fought for selfish reasons and the honour of their own families, with no regard for country or nation.
• They ruled for the sake of their own pride and a sense of mutual enmity.
• As a result, lack of unity was one of the first major reasons for the demise of Rajputs.

Pallavas (275 – 897 CE)

• The Pallava Dynasty was located in the South Indian subcontinent. The span of Pallavas’s reign was from 275 CE to 897 C.E. They were the most influential rulers of South India and contributed enormously in the fields of religion, philosophy, art, coins and architecture. Pallavas were at their peak during the reign of Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I. Throughout their rule in Tondaimandalam, they were in constant conflict with both Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil kingdom of Cholas and Pandyas in the south. They are most remembered for their shore temple architecture. 

Political History of Pallava Dynasty

• The Pallavas’ origins are shrouded in mystery. Historians have proposed a number of theories.
• According to some historians, they are a branch of the Parthian people (an Iranian tribe) who gradually migrated to South India.
• Some claim they are an indigenous dynasty that arose in the Southern region and was a mash-up of various tribes.
• Some experts believe they are of Naga origin and first settled near Madras in the Tondaimandalam region.
• Another theory holds that they are the offspring of a Chola prince and a Naga princess from Manipallavam (Sri Lanka).
• Others believe that the Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas.
• The first Pallava kings ruled in the early fourth century AD.
• By the 7th century AD, three kingdoms vied for supremacy in southern India: the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of Madurai, and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.

Extent of the Pallava Dynasty

• Kanchipuram was the Pallava capital.
• At the height of their power, their territories stretched from northern Andhra Pradesh to River Kaveri in the south.
• The Pallavas’ authority reduced the Cholas to a marginal state in the seventh century.
• The Pallava king Narasimhavarman occupied Vatapi (Badami) after defeating the Chalukyas.
• The Pandyas, Chalukyas, and Pallavas all worked together to crush the Kalabhra uprising.
• The Kalabhras were protesting against the Brahmanic rulers of the three dynasties’ numerous land grants (Brahamadeya) to Brahmanas.

Rulers of Pallava Empire

• Sivaskanda Varman (4th Century AD)
  • He was the most powerful of the early rulers. Ruled at the start of the fourth century AD.
  • In 283 CE, Sivaskandavarman of Kanchi, a Pallava king who ruled from 275 to 300 CE, issued the charter.
  • Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices were performed by him.
• Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (575-600 AD)
  • Simhavishnu was the line’s first ruler. Simhavishnu defeated the Kalabhras, laying the groundwork for the “Age of the Imperial Pallavas.”
  • He also defeated the Chola, Pandya, and Chera kingdoms’ rulers.
  • He ruled over the entire region between the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers. He was a Vishnu worshipper with the title Avanishimha (lion of the earth).
  • According to literary tradition, the great poet Bharavi paid him a visit at his court.
• Mahendravarman (600-630 AD)
  • Mahendravarman I, Simhavishnu’s son, succeeded him. He was a multi-talented genius. He was a soldier and statesman, as well as a religious reformer, architect, poet, and musician.
  • His titles included Mattavilasa, Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta, Gundabhara, and Lalitankura. During this time, the long-running Pallava-Chalukya conflict began.
  • Pulakesin II defeated Mahendravarman I near Kanchi in a battle known as Pullalur.
  • Pulakesin II was almost at the Pallava capital, but Mahendravarman bought peace by ceding their Northern provinces to Pulakesin II.
• Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD)
  • Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas, elevating the dynasty’s power and prestige to incredible heights. He was known as Mahamalla or Mamalla, which means “great wrestler.”
  • His father started the Pallava-Chalukya conflict, which he successfully continued. He wished to avenge his father’s defeat at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II.
  • In three battles, including one in Manimangalam near Kanchi in 642 CE, he defeated Pulakesin II.
  • Pulakesin II died, and Narasimhavarman took the title Vatapikonda in his place (the conqueror of Vatapi).

Major Literary Works of Pallava Dynasty

• The Pallavas were great supporters of education. Kanchi, their capital, was an ancient centre of learning. Kanchi’s Ghatika was well-known, attracting students from all over India and abroad.
• Mayurasarman, the founder of the Kadamba dynasty, studied Vedas in Kanchi. Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer, came to Kanchi to study.
• Kanchi was the home of Dharmapala, who later became the President of Nalanada University.
• Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived during Simhavishnu’s reign.
• Another Sanskrit writer, Dandin, graced the court of Narasimhavarman II.
• The Sanskrit play Mattavilasa Prahasana was written by Mahendravarman I.
• Tamil literature had also grown during this period.
• During this time, music and dance flourished as well.
• Tamil devotional saints used music and dance to bring the “concept of compassionate God” to life.
• Religious hymns were sung with music and dance accompaniment.

Art and Architecture of Pallava Dynasty

• The religious revival of the time provided impetus for architectural activity. The Pallavas made enormous contributions to Indian art and architecture.
• In fact, the Pallavas were the forefathers of the Dravidian style of Indian architecture in the south. It was a gradual progression from cave temples to monolithic Rathas, culminating in structural temples.
• The Pallavas had also aided in the advancement of sculpture. Beautiful sculptures adorn the walls of the Mandapas.
• The sculpture at Mamallapuram depicting the “Descent of Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna” is a masterpiece of classical art.
• Music, dance, and painting had also flourished under the Pallavas’ patronage. The paintings in the Sittannavasal caves date from the Pallava period.

Decline of Pallavas

• The attack and temporary occupation of Kanchi by Vikramaditya II may be regarded as the beginning of the end of Pallava supremacy over South India.
• The Pallava kingdom was attacked by the Pandyas, the western Gangas, and the Rashtrakutas.
• Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta Kingdom, defeated Nandivarman, but the latter offered his daughter Reva in marriage to the former, preventing the Pallava Kingdom from collapsing.
• Pallava rule lasted until the end of the ninth century CE. The other rulers were Dantivarman (795 – 846 CE), Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE), and Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE).
• The last Pallava king was Aparajitavarman (903 CE).
• Aditya I, the Chola king, defeated Aparjitavarman and took control of the Kanchi region. With this, the Pallava hegemony over South India came to an end.

Conclusion

• From 275 CE to 897 CE, the Pallavas established themselves as a formidable power in South India. They were able to maintain their rule for approximately 500 years. Pallava’s fortunes declined after Narasimhavarman. The Chalukyan army invaded the Pallava kingdom and threatened Kanchipuram, its capital. Aparajitavarman was the last king of the Pallava dynasty, and his defeat by the Chola king brought the Pallava power to an end around the end of the 9th century.

Chalukyas (6th to 12 Century)

• With the downfall of the Gupta dynasty, dramatic changes began to occur in the Deccan and southern areas of Vindhyas. With the rise of the Chalukyas, the political climate in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires. The Chalukyas of Badami were the Vakatakas’ successors in western Deccan. They established their capital in Vatapi, modern Badami, in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. From 543 to 753 CE, they ruled over a large area in the Deccan and united the entire south of India. The Chalukya dynasty ruled from the sixth to the twelfth centuries when Pulakeshin I established the Chalukya dynasty in 543 AD. For the first time in history, a South Indian kingdom seized and consolidated control of the entire region between the Kaveri and Narmada rivers. Later, they split into several independent ruling houses, but the main branch remained in power at Vatapi. Their era was also significant in Indian history because of their cultural contributions. 

Chalukyas – Background

• Between the 6th and 12th centuries, the Chalukya dynasty ruled vast areas of southern and central India.
• The Chalukyas ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the sixth century.
• They asserted their independence and rose to prominence under Pulakeshin II’s reign.
• Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas dynasty.
• But the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesin I (543–566 CE).
• After him, Pulakeshin II ruled over the whole Deccan and was the Badami dynasty’s most well-known ruler.
• Following the death of Pulakeshin II, the Badami Chalukya dynasty had a brief period of decline due to internal feuds.
• During the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in driving the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire.
• The next great ruler was Vikramaditya II (733–744 AD) and the kingdom reached its pinnacle under his reign.
• Vikramaditya II conquered the three traditional kingdoms of Tamil land i.e. the Pandyas, Cholas, and Cheras.

Divisions in Chalukya Dynasty

• Chalukyas governed as three separate but related dynasties i.e. Badami, Eastern and Western Chalukyas during this time.
• The “Badami Chalukyas” the first dynasty, ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the sixth century.
• They become independent and rose to dominance under Pulakeshin II’s reign.
• Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas dynasty but the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesin I (543–566 CE).
• The Eastern Chalukyas founded an independent state in the eastern Deccan after Pulakeshin II death. They ruled Vengi until the 11th century.
• The Chalukyas of Vengi separated out from the Badami Chalukyas.
• In 624 A.D, Pulakeshin II (609–642 AD) placed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as governor of the newly gained region of eastern Deccan.
• After Pulakeshin II death, his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana developed an independent state.
• In the western Deccan, the decline of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 10th century led to the emergence of Western Chalukyas. They ruled till the 12th century.
• The Western Chalukya Empire is also known as the Kalyani Chalukya Empire.
• Tailapa-II, who was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta, established this dynasty.
• For 200 years, they were at odds with the Cholas as well as the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.

Important Rulers of Chalukya Dynasty

Pulakesin I (543 – 566 AD)

• Jayasimha was Pulakesin’s grandfather and Ranaraga was his father.
• His forefathers were vassal monarchs, most likely from the Kadambas or Rashtrakutas.
• Pulakesin I (543–566 AD) was the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty.
• He established a strong fortification at Vapati (modern Badami) in Karnataka’s Bijapur district and declared independence by sacrificing a horse.
• The name ‘Pulakesin’ may be a Sanskrit-Kannada hybrid word meaning “tiger-haired”.

Kirtivarman I (566 – 597 AD)

• After his father, Pulakesin I, died in 566 AD, Kirtivarman I seized the throne.
• Kirtivarman inherited a small empire based on Vatapi, which he greatly expanded.
• His empire stretched from the Konkan coast of modern-day Maharashtra in the north to Karnataka’s Shimoga region in the south.
• And from the Arabian Sea in the west to Andhra Pradesh’s Kurnool and Guntur districts in the east.
• According to the Pulakesin II Aihole inscription, Kirtivarman was “the night of doom” for the Nalas, Mauryas, and Kadambas.
• He performed the Bahusuvarna-Agnishtom Yagya which is mentioned in the Mahakuta pillar inscription.

Mangalesha (597 AD – 609 AD)

• Mangalesha succeeded his elder brother Kirtivarman I, who was most likely his half-brother and left at least three minor sons.
• Mangalesha “took upon himself the responsibility of governance” because Kirtivarman’s son Pulakesin II was a minor, according to later Chalukya inscriptions at Kalyani.
• He reigned a kingdom that stretched from southern Gujarat in the north to the Bellary-Kurnool region in the south.
• He administered the kingdom during the reign of Kirtivarman, who was preoccupied with military adventures.
• Kirtivarman and Mangalesha may have alternated administering the kingdom and commanding military battles.
• Mangalesha rejected Pulakesin’s claim to the throne, sent him into exile, and potentially appointed his own son as the heir apparent.
• Pulakesin II plotted an attack against Mangalesha during his exile, which he was eventually successful and murdered the Mangalesha.

Pulakesin II (609AD-642AD)

• Pulakesin-II was the most powerful ruler of the Badami Chalukyas.
• He was the first king to issue gold coins in South India.
• He was too young when his father died, that’s why his paternal uncle Mangalesha was elevated to the throne (regent king).
• Pulakesin II ascended the throne after defeating Mangalesha in the Bana territory at Elpattu-Simbhige.
• He is famous for defeating King Harsha on the banks of the Narmada.
• He also took on the title Daskshinapatheshwara, similar to Harsha’s Uttarpatheshwara.
• He defeated Pallava king Mahendravarman I, but was defeated and killed by Mahendravarman’s son and successor, Narasimhavarman I.

Vikramaditya I (655 AD – 680 AD)

• Vikramaditya was the third son of Pulakesin II.
• He set himself the task of repelling the Pallava invasion and restoring the unity of his father’s kingdom with the assistance of his maternal grandfather Bhuvikarma or Durvineet of the Western Ganga Dynasty.
• He was able to put an end to Pallava’s thirteen-year occupation and capture Vatapi.
• He defeated Mahendravarman II (Pallava king) in 668 AD and continued his capture of Kanchi for about five to six years.
• During this time, he plundered the Chola, Pandya, and Kerala kingdoms but did not annex any territory (his army remained in Thiruchirapalli).
• Vikramaditya took on the dynastic titles of Satyashraya (“refuge of truth”) and Shri-prithvi-vallabha.
• Vikramaditya I, in addition to the usual Chalukyan titles, assumed the title Rajamalla, implying that he became the sovereign of Mallas, i.e. the Pallavas.

Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)

• Kirtivarman was the son of Vikramaditya II.
• He was also known as Nripasimha (lion among kings).
• When he succeeded to the throne, Chalukyas seemed to be at their best because the Pallavas were defeated, the Deccan was taken over by the Chalukyas, and the seemingly invincible Muslims were repulsed.
• However, within a decade, Kirtivarman had lost his glory, as the rising power of Rashtrakutas and Pandyas caused trouble for the Chalukya king.
• The Chalukyas came to an end with Kirtivarman II, who was deposed in 753 AD by Dantidurga.

Administration of Chalukyas

• At higher levels of Chalukyas, the government was modelled after the administrative systems of Magadha and Satavahana.
• King was the state’s highest-ranking official. Some scholars believe that kings had unrestricted power, but others disagree. However, it is undeniable that the majority of Chalukya kings worked for the welfare of the people.
• The king’s chief queen was known as ‘Tattamahish.’ The prince was elevated to the post of Yuvaraja.
• The King was the highest judicial authority and the head of the administrative council.
• There was a council of ministers and other officers to advise the king and assist him in administration. Mahamatya was the name of the Prime Minister.
• In addition to ministers, there were other officers who assisted the king in the administration of the state like

Administration of Manda — Mahamandaleshwar

Chief of the army — Dandadhipatya

Heads of the village — Visayika

Heads of the law department — Adhishthanaka

Revenue collection — Pattaiika

• The empire was divided into provinces and other units for administration. Mandal was the topmost unit of the empire and Mahamandateshwara was its administrator.
• The empire was divided into villages known as Visha for local administration. Gram sabha and gram panchayats ran the villages on a local level. Vishayaka was the chief of Visha.
• Pattaiika was appointed as a special officer in charge of revenue collection. Land revenue was the state’s main source of income and it was levied at a rate of one-sixth of production.
• The Chalukyas had a four-winged army known as the ‘Chaturangini.’ The elephant army was given a lot of importance. King was the supreme commander of the Army.
• Senapati’s duties were carried out by Danda Nayaka or Dandadhipatya.
• Samantas maintained separate armies and assisted their kings when needed.
• During the Chalukyas’ reign, there were separate military and civil courts.
• The King was the highest judicial authority, and his decisions were based on conventions and the advice of his ministers.

Society of Chalukyas

• Chalukyas followed the Hindu caste system and Brahmins held a privileged position as knowledge and local justice providers.
• These Brahmins were typically involved in careers based on religion and learning, with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial arts.
• Sati may have been absent because widows such as Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records.
• Devadasis were recognised by the government and were present in temples.
• Sage Bharata’s Natyashastra, the precursor to Bharatanatyam, was popular and can be seen in many sculptures and inscriptions.
• Some women from the royal family held positions of political power in administration, which shows women held high positions in society.
• Women’s participation in the fine arts is documented in records, such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi’s and Kalachuris of Kalyani queen Sovala Devi’s skill in dance and music.
• In terms of eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists, and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian, whereas other communities enjoyed various types of meat.
• Domesticated meat such as goats, sheep, pigs, and fowl, as well as exotic meat such as partridge, hare, wildfowl, and boar, were sold by marketplace vendors.
• People found indoor entertainment by watching wrestling matches (Kusti), watching animals fight (such as cock fights and ram fights), or gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor recreation activity.
• Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records, and they were built near temples.

Art and Architecture of Chalukyas

• The Badami Chalukya era was a watershed moment in the evolution of South Indian architecture.
• This dynasty’s kings were known as Umapati Varlabdh, and they built numerous temples for the Hindu god Shiva.
• Their architectural style is known as “Chalukyan architecture” or “Karnata Dravida architecture.”
• They built nearly a hundred monuments, both rock-cut (cave) and structural, in the Malaprabha river basin in the modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka.
• The Western Chalukyas’ art is sometimes referred to as “Gadag style,” after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka.
• Aside from temples, the architecture of the dynasty is well known for the ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) that served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi.

Religion of Chalukyas

• The Chalukyas were Vedic Hindus who built temples in Aihole, Pattadakal and Mahakuta which were dedicated to popular Hindu deities.
• During their period, both Shaivism and Vaishnavism prospered, particularly by Badami and Eastern Chalukyas.
• Whereas, the Western Chalukyas were the followers of Virashaivism.
• Virashaivism, also known as Lingayatism, is a Hindu sect based on Shaivism.
• Vedic sacrifices, sacred vows, and gift-giving were all significant.
• Sculptures of Hindu gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Kartikeya, Ganapathi, Shakti, Surya, and Sapta Matrikas (seven mothers) attest to their popularity.
• With the spread of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy in the 8th century, the decline of Buddhism in South India began.
• Buddhism was in decline but Jainism was able to maintain considerable public support.
• The primary educational centres of Badami Chalukyas were Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti, and Puligere.

Decline of Chalukyas

• Jayasimha was the first ruler, but the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesin I (543–566 CE).
• After him, Pulakeshin II ruled over the whole Deccan and after his death, there was a brief period of decline due to internal feuds.
• But Vikramaditya II (733–744 AD) reached the kingdom to its pinnacle.
• After, Vikramaditya II, the kingdom began to downfall.
• Within a decade, Kirtivarman had lost his glory, as the rising power of Rashtrakutas and Pandyas caused trouble for the Chalukya king.
• In 753 AD, the Rashtrakuta Ruler Dantidurga deposed the last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II.
• The Chalukyas of Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas separated out from the Badami Chalukyas.
• Rulers like Kubja Vishnuvardhana and Jayasimha I tried to maintain the kingdom.
• Vengi came to an agreement with the Rashtrakutas and treated them as allies.
• They were able to maintain their independence till the Rashtrakutas were overthrown in 973 A.D. by the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
• Lastly, the Vengi kingdom succumbed to the Chola empire and came to an end.
• Western Chalukyas was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta, established this dynasty.
• For 200 years, they were at odds with the Cholas as well as the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
• The Deccan ruling families, the Hoysalas and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri were subordinates to the Western Chalukyas.
• The Kingdoms of their feudatories were founded on the ruins of these two empires, and their mutual antagonisms occupied the annals of Deccan history for over a century.
• In the 12th century, the Hoysala Empire finally destroyed the Western Chalukyas.

Conclusion

• The reign of the Chalukyas was a watershed moment in South Indian history. The entire territory between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers was captured by a kingdom headquartered in Southern India. The introduction of effective administration, a surge in overseas trade and commerce, and the development of a new architectural style known as Vesara all occurred during the expansion of this mighty empire. They were Vedic culture devotees, and this period is known as the golden age of Karnataka.

Rashtrakutas (750 – 900 CE)

• The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruled parts of South India from the eighth to the tenth centuries CE. At its peak, their kingdom encompassed the entire modern state of Karnataka, as well as parts of the current Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Their capital was Malkhed, which was located near Sholapur. Because of their geographical location, the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was involved in alliances and wars with both their northern and southern neighboring kingdoms. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s earlier rulers were Hindus, but later rulers were Jains, according to historical records.

Origin of Rashtrakutas

• Historians have argued about the origins of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• The relationship of medieval Rashtrakutas who ruled in the 6th century to Manyakheta Rashtrakutas who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been disputed.
• Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain their genesis. They do claim to be descended from the Epic-era Yadava family. According to some scholars, they are of the Kshatriya race that gave Maharashtra its name.
• According to popular belief, they were a clan of ancestry officials tasked with governing Rashtrakutas’ provinces. As a result, it was adopted as a surname.
• It is clear, however, that they established their empire over the ruins of the Chalukyas.

Important Rulers of Rashtrakutas

Krishna I (756-774)

• Dantidurga died without a male heir, and his uncle Krishna I (756 – 774 CE) succeeded him.
• When Krishna I routed their erstwhile masters, the Badami Chalukyas, in 757 CE, he effectively ended that dynasty’s rule.
• He grew his kingdom by invading and defeating the Gangas, subjugating the Konkans, and sending his own son to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi and accepting their submission without a fight.
• Krishna I am also culturally significant in Indian history because he was the architect of the magnificent Kailasa Temple of Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage site now).

Govinda II (774-780)

• Govinda II, Krishna I’s eldest son, succeeded him (r. c. 774-780 CE).
• Govinda II’s military exploits include traveling to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom on his father’s orders and assisting a certain Ganga king in regaining the throne from his brother.
• It is unknown how he died, but he was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793)

• The ascension of Dhruva Dharavarsha (r. 780-793 CE) marks the beginning of the Rashtrakutas’ golden age.
• He began his military conquests by punishing all the kings who were friendly to his elder brother, and then ventured into imperial Kannauj and defeated its king.
• Dhruva then defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara Kingdom of Central India and the Pala Kingdom of Eastern India, which was centered around present-day Bengal, and thus began the tripartite struggle for control of India’s main heartland between the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire, the Rashtrakutas, and the Pala Dynasty.
• His other victories included subjugating the Vengi king, who could only ensure peace by marrying his own daughter to Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Govinda III (793-814)

• Govinda III (r. 793-814 CE) succeeded his father Dhruva, and despite ascending to power through a family feud, he quickly proved to be the most powerful emperor of this dynasty militarily.
• Dhruva had successfully moved into North India during his time, but he had not gained many lands.
• Govinda III rectified this by expanding his kingdom from Kannauj to the Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari now) and from the east of India from Banaras, Bengal, and so on to the west of India, primarily to the Gujarat territories.
• He defeated numerous kings and rulers along the way, including the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II, King Dharmapala of the Pala Empire, Pallava Dantivarman, Cholas, Pandya, and several others.

Amoghavarsha I (814-878)

• Amoghavarsha I, the son of Govinda III, was the greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Amoghavarsha I established a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State), and Broach became the best part of the kingdom during his reign.
• Amoghavarsha I was a great supporter of education and literature.
• Amoghavarsha was converted to Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
• Suleman, an Arab merchant, described Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the world, along with the Caliph of Bagdad, the King of Constantinople, and the Emperor of China.
• Amoghavarsha ruled for 64 years.

Krishna II (878-914)

• Krishna II (reigned 878–914 CE) succeeded his famous father, Amoghavarsha I Nrupatunga, to the Rashtrakuta throne. Kannara was his Kannada name.
• His queen was Mahadevi, a Haihaya princess from Chedi. According to the chronology of inscriptions that mention the name of this king, Krishna II may have begun to rule even during his father’s lifetime.
• The fact that Amoghavarsha renounced state affairs in his final years to pursue religious pursuits lends credence to this claim.
• Krishna II’s reign saw significant advances in literature, though his reign was mixed in terms of empire expansion.
• During his reign, he cultivated a matrimonial alliance with Chedis in order to gain a military advantage.

Indra III (914-929)

• Indraraja was the son of Jagattunga and Lakshmi, a Kalachuri dynasty princess.
• His coronation took place in Kurundaka, a village near the confluence of the Krishna and Panchganga rivers, rather than in the kingdom’s capital.
• According to a copper plate, Indraraja III destroyed Meru, which was ruled by Pratihara Mahipala. This could be a reference to Mahodaya, a different name for Kanauj.
• During his reign, the author Trivikrama Bhatta published Damayanti Katha and Madalasa Champu.
• Indraraja III died and was succeeded by his elder son, Amoghavarsha II, who died within a year of becoming emperor.

Krishna III (939-967)

• The last great Rashtrakuta Ruler, consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada river to Kaveri and included the Northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.
• He was engaged in a struggle against the Paramars of Malwa and the Eastern Chalukya of Vengi.
• In about 949 CE, he also defeated the Chola king Parantaka I and annexed the northern part of the Chola Empire.
• He then marched towards Rameshwaram and set up a pillar of victory there and also built a temple.

Karka (972-973)

• Karakaraja ascended to the throne shortly after the death of his uncle Khottiga at the hands of the invading Malwa king in C.E 972.
• This demonstrates that the kingdom was not annexed, but rather plundered and destroyed to some extent.
• The Malwa invasion severely weakened the Rashtrakutas, and the Chalukya king Tailapa II took advantage of the opportunity to launch an attack in 973 C.E., completing the destruction begun by Siyaka II of Malwa.
• An inscription by Vijjaya of the Kalachuri dynasty, the Rashtrakutas’ primary feudatory for two centuries, confirms that Karakraja II was killed by Tailapa during the Chalukya invasion.

Administration of Rashtrakutas

• The King was the supreme ruler in the Rashtrakuta system of government. The inscriptions show that the next ruler is chosen on a hereditary basis.
• However, the new emperor’s abilities were also taken into account as he ascended to the throne. The kingdom was divided into provinces, each of which was governed by a ‘Rashtrapati.’
• A district was overseen by a ‘Vishayapati’ under the provinces. The trustworthy ministers ruled over more than one province.
• The district was overseen by a ‘Nadugowda,’ and the lowest division was a village overseen by a ‘Gramapati.’

Literature of Rashtrakutas

• Kannada literature rose to prominence during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s reign. The Prakrit and Sanskrit eras came to an end during this time period.
• Court poets produced literary works in Kannada and Sanskrit. ‘Kavirajamarga,’ written by King Amoghavarsha, was the first Kannada book available.
• In the court of King Amoghavarsha I, bilingual writers such as Asaga rose to prominence and noted scholars such as Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics.
• Adipurana was written by the Jain writer Adikavi Pampa, who is widely regarded as one of the most influential Kannada writers.
• Sri Ponna was another notable Jain writer in Kannada, patronized by King Krishna III and best known for Shantipurana, his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara.
• Prose works in Sanskrit were also prolific during this time period.

Art and Architecture of Rashtrakutas

• The rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta in present-day Maharashtra reflect the Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s contributions to art and architecture. They also re-dedicated rock-cut shrines and renovated Buddhist caves.
• At Ellora, Amoghavarsha I dedicated five Jain cave temples. The monolithic Kailashnath Temple is Rashtrakutas’ most spectacular work at Ellora.
• After Rashtrakuta rule had spread to the Deccan, King Krishna I funded this project. Dravidian was the architectural style.
• Ardhanaarishwar and Maheshamurti are two other notable sculptures at Elephanta.
• The Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora, as well as the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai, are two other well-known rock-cut temples in Maharashtra.
• Rashtrakutas built the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
• The important architecture includes:

Kailasanatha Temple

• The Kailasa temple in Ellora Cave 16 is one of the world’s largest rock-cut temples.
• The temple’s construction began during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga (735-757 AD).
• The temple’s major construction was completed by King Dantidurga’s successor, Krishna I (757-773 AD), though work continued for more than a century under many successive kings.
• It is situated in the Maharashtra town of Ellora. Pallava and Chalukya styles can be seen in the temple architecture.
• The temple grounds contain five detached shrines, three of which are dedicated to the river goddesses Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati.

Elephanta Caves

• The Elephanta Caves are the focal point of Elephanta Island, which is located in Mumbai Harbour, off the coast of Mumbai (Bombay), India.
• The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.
• The island’s modern name, Elephanta from Gharapuri, was given by the Portuguese.
• The caves date back to the Silhara kings of the ninth to thirteenth centuries (810–1260).
• Some of the site’s sculptures have been attributed to the imperial Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, such as the Trimurti of Elephanta, which depicts Shiva with three faces, similar to the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, the Rashtrakutas’ royal insignia.

Society and Culture of Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakuta Empire’s subjects looked up to their emperor or king as the ultimate authority who was expected to look after them and uphold current social justice, order, and peace.
• For day-to-day matters, however, there were guilds or co-operatives that would settle any disputes according to custom, and if the case could not be resolved, it was brought to the attention of a higher authority.
• These guilds generally followed the prevailing rules and regulations of a specific group or caste, deviating only in exceptional circumstances.
• Society was divided into castes based on profession. The ruling castes had their own set of rules, regulations, and customs that they strictly adhered to. They, too, adhered to ancient orthodoxy.
• However, because the Rashtrakuta rulers were tolerant of all religions, society was generally accepting of adherents of various faiths.

Religion and Language

• Kannada is one of the most important languages in modern India, and it was the Rashtrakutas who popularized it and made it a tool of daily communication, despite the fact that the language had already been in use for a long time.
• They also supported Sanskrit, which was a language of the elite. Amoghavarsha I was instrumental in the creation of seminal works in both languages, and his Kavirajamarga was a watershed moment in Kannada poetry.
• His work in Sanskrit was widely praised and read in other Asian countries.
• According to legend, Amoghavarsha I endorsed Jainism, and as a result, many Jain scholars flourished in his court, including the Jain mathematician Mahavirachariya.
• Adikabi Pampa and Sri Ponna flourished in Kannada and are now regarded as iconic contributors to the language.

Decline of Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakutas’ decline began with the reign of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, who was defeated and killed by a Paramara dynasty ruler in 972 CE, with the capital Manyakheta plundered and destroyed, severely denting the dynasty’s prestige.
• Indra IV, the kingdom’s last ruler, committed suicide in 982 CE by performing a Jaina ritual known as Sallekhana, which is a practice of fasting to death.
• The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ended, but their influence endured.
• Parts of their kingdom were annexed by the later Cholas and other dynasties, but their government system and several other cultural practices were adopted by subsequent empires.

Conclusion

• The Rashtrakutas established a vast empire and a glorious rule. Rashtrakuta made significant contributions to religion, art, and architecture. They not only conquered the entire south of India but also penetrated deeply into the territories of the north. Many of them were lauded as unbeatable conquerors and effective rulers. The Rashtrakuta dynasty’s reign in the Deccan was perhaps the most brilliant period in its history. No other Deccan ruling dynasties played such a dominant role in Indian history until the rise of the Marathas as an imperial power in the 18th century. Their campaigns against powerful opponents were consistently crowned with brilliant success.

 

Chapter 11 : Sangam Period

Introduction

• Sangam literature is main source of History of ancient South India i.e., Tamilkam.
• The period roughly between the 3^rd century B.C. and 3^rd century A.D. in South India (the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam Period.
• It was compiled during 3^rd century BC to 3^rd century CE & was composed in poetic format around theme of love and war.
• It has been named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• At the sangams eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies.
• These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature.
• According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.
  • The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.
  • The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
  • The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.

Sangam Literature: Major source giving details of Sangam Age

The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named – Silappathikaram and Manimegalai .

• Tolkappiyam was authored by Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil grammar but it also provides insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
• Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
• The Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works about ethics and morals. The most important among these works is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.
• The two epics Silappathikaram is written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar. They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.

Other Sources that give details about the Sangam Period are –

• The Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mentioning about commercial trade contacts between the West and South India.
• The Ashokan inscriptions mentioned about the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers to the south of Mauryan empire.
• Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also has mention of Tamil kingdoms.

Political History of Sangam Period

South India, during the Sangam Age, was ruled by three dynasties-the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. The main source of information about these kingdoms is traced from the literary references of Sangam Period.

Cheras

• The Cheras controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
• Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control.
• The emblem of Cheras was “bow and arrow”.
• The Pugalur inscription of the 1^st century AD has reference to three generations of Chera rulers.
• The Cheras owed its importance to trade with the Romans. They also built a temple of Augustus there.
• The greatest ruler of Cheras was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera or the Good Chera, who belonged to the 2nd century A.D.
  • His military achievements have been chronicled in epic Silapathikaram, with details about his expedition to the Himalayas where he defeated many north Indian rulers.
  • Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.
  • He was the first to send an embassy to China from South India.

Cholas

• The Cholas controlled the central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu.
• Their core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as Cholamandalam.
• Their capital was Uraiyur (near Tiruchirapalli town) and Puhar or Kaviripattinam was an alternative royal residence and chief port town.
• Tiger was their emblem.
• The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.
• King Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas.
  • Pattinappalai portrays his life and military conquests.
  • Many Sangam poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated the confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains.
  • Karikala’s military achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil region of that time.
  • Trade and commerce flourished during his reign.
  • He founded the port city of Puhar (identical with Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.

Pandyas

• The Pandyas ruled from Madurai.
• Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving.
• Their emblem was the “Fish”.
• They patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the Sangam poems.
• Rulers kept a regular army.
• Trade was prosperous and their pearls were famous.
• Sati, caste, idol worship were common. Widows were treated badly.
• They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.
• Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.
• After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than a century, only to rise once again at the end of the 6th century.

Sangam Polity and Administration

• During the Sangam period hereditary monarchy was the form of government.
• Each of the dynasties of Sangam age had a royal emblem – tiger for the Cholas, carp/Fish for the Pandyas, and bow for the Cheras.
• The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorised into five councils.
• They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).
• The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.
• The chief source of state’s income was land revenue while a custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade.
• Major source of fulfilling the royal treasury was the booty captured in wars.
• The roads and highways were maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.

Sangam Society

• Tolkappiyam refers to the Five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).
• Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar(Ruling Class), anthanar, vanigar(carried on trade and commerce) and vellalar(Agriculturists).
• Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.

Position of Women during Sangam Age

• A lot of information is available in the Sangam literature to understand the position of women during the Sangam age.
• Women had respect and were allowed intellectual pursuits.There were women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar who flourished and contributed to Tamil literature.
• Women were allowed to choose their life partners. But life of widows was miserable.
• There is also a mention about the practice of Sati being prevalent in the higher strata of society.

Religion

• The primary deity of the Sangam period was Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
• The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• Murugan was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.
• Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and Korravai.
• The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period and was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warriors in the battle.

Economy of the Sangam Age

• Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice was the most common crop.
• The handicraft included weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
• These were in great demand in the internal and external trade that was at its peak during the Sangam period.
• A high expertise was attained in spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes. These were in great demand in the western world especially for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
• The port city of Puhar became an important place of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port containing precious goods.
• Other significant ports of commercial activity were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
• Many gold and silver coins that were issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero have been found in all parts of Tamil Nadu indicating flourishing trade.
• Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics and spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric along with ivory products, pearls and precious stones.
• Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine.

End of Sangam Age

• The Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline towards the end of the 3^rd century A.D.
• The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country post-sangam period between 300 AD to 600 AD, whose period was called an interregnum or ‘dark age’ by earlier historians.

Chapter 10 : Harshavardhana Period

Introduction

Chapter 9 : Gupta Period

Introduction

Chapter 8 : Post Mauryan Period

Introduction

• After the decline of Mauryas, the regional kingdoms were formed. Unlike Mauryas none of these regional kingdoms could extend their political authority over the large area equivalent to that of Mauryan Empire.
• The downfall of Mauryas & their great empire witnessed rise of multiple regional kingdoms.
• This period witnessed the clash, the rise and fall of a number of smaller kingdoms.
• The native dynasties like Shungas, Satavahanas, and the Kanvas ruled in eastern India, central India and the Deccan region.
• Foreigners like Indo-Greeks or Bactrians, Sakas, the Parthians and the Kushanas ruled in north-western India.

Corroborated by inscriptions and coins bearing the names of rulers, following literary texts act as sources of information about this period:

• Puranas,
• Dharmashastra; Manusmriti also known as ‘Manavdharmashastra’ is composed by Sage Manu and is first detailed lawbook available.
• Gargi Samhita and the Mahabhashya of Patanjali (which is commentary on Panini’s Ashtadhyayi).
• The Buddhist Jatakas, Divyavadana, Mahavastu and the Milindpanho (Sanskrit, Milindaprashna)
• Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Banabhatta.
• Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written by an anonymous Greek seafarer (pattern of trade between India and the Western world).
• Also, the epigraphic records in Kharoshthi found in large numbers in Gandhara and Central Asia refer to different facets of India’s regular contacts with these regions

Evolution of Jatis

Since a long time ago, we’ve classified the people into different caste systems called jati. This differentiation is based on the work they perform. This determines their privilege, power, and their wealth. There are four jatis.

• The Brahmanas are the top-most. They’re scholars or priests
• The Kshatriyas they’re soldiers or political rulers
• The Vaishyas were basically merchants
• The Shudras they’re peasants, artisans, servants, and labourers

The caste system considers Shudras and untouchables. Society treats them as unclean and assumes they’ll pollute the environment.

Jati or the caste

• The caste word came from the Portuguese or Spanish word ‘casta’ which means “breed, lineage, or race”
• Portuguese used casta within the trendy sense after they used it for the hereditary Asian social teams referred to as ‘jati’ in India
• Caste is interrelated with birth and where you’re born
• According to Parker and Anderson, “Caste is a style of the socio-economic class organization during which the people’s position within the standing hierarchy is set by birth and descent”

Theories suggesting the origin of the Indian caste system

Several theories suggest the origin of caste in India.

Traditional theory

• The traditional theory states that the class structure has a divine origin
• These four came from the body parts of the god Brahma
• Brahmins came from the head of Brahma, and this is why these are intellectuals and teachers
• Kshatriyas, the rulers or the soldiers, came from the arms of Brahma
• Then, Vaishyas from the thighs of Brahma. At last, the Shudras came from his feet
• Brahma’s mouth signifies learning, preaching, etc., arms for protection. Things for business
• And feet are to support the entire body. Thus, Shudras were meant to serve everyone. Later due to inter-caste marriages, the sub-castes came.

Political theory

• According to political theory, the brahmins invented the caste system. And it’s a clever device
• Works to put themselves on the first ladder of social hierarchy
• According to Dr Ghurye, “Caste is a Brahminic child of Indo-Aryan culture cradled in the land of the Ganges and then transferred to other parts of India”
• The concept of the spiritual merit of the king came from Brahmanas. This was to get the support of the land’s ruler.

Racial theory

• The stratification of the caste of the society with its origin within the system of Chaturvarna
• Namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Shudras, and Vaishyas
• Rig Veda stresses terribly about the variations between the non-Aryans and Aryans
• This difference is just not based on their colour but also on the way they speak: the way they worship and other features
• The grouping system prevailing throughout the Vedic amount principally supported the division of occupation and labour
• The categories are mentioned in rig Vedas. The Brahmans represent the poet and priest
• The Kshatriya represents the warrior and chief. Vaishya includes common people. And shudra represents the domestic servant. Shudras is only mentioned once

Indian caste system

The caste system in India includes four castes, namely.

Brahmins

• The Brahmins were regarded as the “priestly class” because they were priests and religious teachers
• The priesthood at Hindu temples or during ceremonies and rites with songs and prayers was the traditional occupation of Brahmins
• The Brahmins have the highest ritual position among the four classes, in theory. In Indian literature, the term Brahmin refers to a nice and ethical person, not merely a priest

Kshatriyas

• The Kshatriyas are a major group of Hindu castes who live primarily in India’s northern part
• Kshatra is a Sanskrit word that means “warrior.” The Rajputs, who historically formed the various royal houses of Rajasthan (ancient Rajputana) and nearby areas, are the most typical and well-known of these clans
• Kshatriyas were the ancient Hindu society’s military and governing class, who first rose through the ranks based on their guna, behaviour (karma), and natural abilities (Swabhava)
• It’s worth noting that some major personalities in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism were Kshatriyas, reflecting the group’s authority and status in ancient Indian society
• The prominent religious figures Gautama Buddha and Mahavira (as well as Lord Rama and Lord Krishna) were all members of the same family

Vaishya

• Vaishyas are the third caste in the caste structure
• Agriculture, livestock care, trade, and other economic endeavours are the primary occupations of Vaishyas
• Vaishyas were originally assigned to conventional agricultural and cattle-rearing occupations in Hindu holy texts, but with time they evolved into landlords, traders, and money-lenders
• Because they desired to be born twice, the Vaishyas also focused on religious instruction
• They shared the status of Dvjia with the higher two castes, Kshatriya and Brahmin, which means they were “born twice.” During the ceremony named Upanayanam, they achieve spiritual rebirth
• Vaishyas were significant members of society, yet they were still an inferior caste.

Shudra

• Shudras are known to be the lowest caste in the Indian caste system
• Typically, they were artisans and labourers
• The union of an upper caste and a Shudra produced a major share of this caste. Shudras were said to have existed to service the present rest classes, according to ancient writings
• A Shudra’s job was to serve the twice-born, to engage in agriculture, trade, and cattle-breeding

Chapter 7 : Mauryan Empire

Introduction

• In Ancient India, many significant empires evolved. One of them was the Mauryan empire. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, the Mauryan empire was an important dynasty in our history.
• The Mauryan empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 322 BCE. The Mauryan empire was the geographically extensive historical power belonging to the iron age. Three famous rulers of the Mauryan dynasty who took the glory of the Mauryan empire to peak were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Ashoka. The political unity was achieved for the first time in the Indian history under the Mauryas reign. With the conquest of the Indo-Gangetic plain, the empire was centralized.The capital city of the Mauryan empire was Pataliputra (present day Patna). The republic and oligarchy form of government came to an end and Monarchy reached excellence under the Mauryas. The empire is known for their exceptional creativity in the fields of literature, art, architecture and inscriptions. The Lion Capital of Ashoka which is the national emblem of India belongs to this era. The Mauryan empire came to an end by 180BCE and the last ruler of the dynasty was Brihadratha.

Chapter 6 : Mahajanapadas

Introduction

Chapter 5 : Buddhism

Introduction

In the sixth century BCE, the socio-religious norms that were well established & followed were criticised by the then great scholars like Confucius in China, Zoroaster in Iran, Parmenides in Greece. They laid emphasis on ethical and moral values. India also witnessed the emergence of two alternate religions – Buddhism & Jainism. Both these religions believed and propagated non-violence, good social conduct, charity & generosity. These religions emphasised that true happiness does not lie in materialism or performance of rituals.

Where does the Origin of Buddhism Lie?

• Buddhism started in India over 2,600 years ago as a way life that had a potential of transforming a person.
  • It is one of the important religions of South and South-Eastern Asian countries.
• The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born in circa 563 BCE.
  • He was born into royal family of Sakya clan who ruled from Kapilvastu, in Lumbini which is situated near the Indo-Nepal Border.
• At the age of 29, Gautama left home and rejected his life of riches and embraced a lifestyle of asceticism, or extreme self-discipline.
  • After 49 consecutive days of meditation, Gautama attained Bodhi (enlightenment) under a pipal tree at Bodhgaya, a village in Bihar.
• Buddha gave his first sermon in the village of Sarnath, near the city of Benares in UP. This event is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law).
  • He died at the age of 80 in 483 BCE at a place called Kushinagara a town in UP. The event is known as Mahaparinibban.

The Buddha – Biography

Hagiography

The Gautama Buddha was born to Suddhodana (chief of republican Sakya clan) as Siddhartha in 563 BCE on Vaishakha Poornima day at Lumbini (Nepal). He lost his mother (Mahamaya) just a few days after his birth and was brought up by his stepmother Gautami. There were 32 birthmarks on his body and Brahmanas predicted that either he would be a world conqueror or a world renouncer. He lived a life of luxury and comfort in his early years.

•  He was married to Yashodhara at the early age of 16 and had a son named Rahula. At the age of 29, he left his palace and decided to become a wanderer. He along with Channa, his charioteer and his horse, Kanthaka, wandered for six long years in search of truth (Mahabhinishkramana/Great Renunciation).
• He first meditated with Alara Kalama and then Uddaka Ramaputta. They were considered to be the established teachers of that era but he was not convinced with their teachings that liberation from sorrow can be obtained by mental discipline and knowledge only.
• The Buddha later joined five wandering ascetics – Assaji, Mahanama, Vappa, Bhaddiya and Kondanna. He practised severe austerities until his body was almost emaciated and realising that austerities could not lead to realisation, he left them. He then moved towards the village of Senani and took a seat under a peepal tree facing east. He then resolved not to rise until enlightenment was achieved.
• As Gautama sat in deep meditation – Mara, the Lord of illusions, recognising that his power was about to be broken, tried to distract him. The Buddha touched the earth, calling it to bear witness to the countless lifetimes of virtue that had led him to this place of enlightenment. The earth shook, on hearing the truth of Gautama’s words. Mara then unleashed his army of demons. In the epic battle that ensued, Gautama’s wisdom broke through the illusions and the power of his compassion transformed the demon’s weapons into flowers. Mara and his army fled in disarray. Thus, at the age of 35, he ultimately attained Nirvana/enlightenment at Gaya, Magadha (Bihar) under a peepal tree (Bodhi tree), on the banks of river Niranjana and came to be known as the Buddha – the Enlightened One. It is believed that Ashoka’s queen was envious of the Bodhi tree, and tried to kill it but it grew again. The tree was cut down many times, but it grew again at the same place and is still revered by Buddhists.
• The Buddha delivered his first sermon on deliverance from sufferings to his five former companions at Sarnath. This event is known as Dhamma Chakka-Pavattana, which means turning the wheel of dharma. The Buddha wandered about for over four decades, and established an order of monks and nuns known as Sangha. He attained Parinirvana at the age of 80 at Kusinara (of the Mallas). His last words were “All composite things decay, strive diligently”.
• The five forms that represent Buddha are:

Rise of Buddhism

The various causes that led to the growth of this religion are as follows:

Moment Influence

• The 6th century B.C. was a perfect time for Buddhism to spread.
• People were fed up with superstitions, complicated rituals and rites, and blind beliefs during the time.
• The Buddha’s message was a great respite to those who were already suffering under the oppressive weight of Brahmanism.

Simple Doctrines

• Buddhism was essentially simple in comparison to Jainism.
• The people were not perplexed. Rather, its ‘Arya Satya,’ ‘Eightfold Path,’ and ‘idea of non-violence’ were so straightforward that anyone could understand and follow them.
• Buddhism lacked the strictness of Jainism and the complexity of Vedic ceremonies.
• People who had grown tired of Brahminical manipulations of the Vedic religion found Buddhism to be a peaceful and refreshing shift.

Simple Expressions

• The Buddha communicated his message to the masses in common people’s vernacular. The Prakrit language utilised by Buddha was India’s spoken language.
•  The Vedic religion could only be understood because of the Brahmins’ stranglehold on the Sanskrit language.
• Buddhism was simple to comprehend, and people accepted it after being persuaded by its simple philosophy and appealing message.

Buddha’s Personality 

• The Buddha’s personality endeared him and his faith to the public. The Buddha was kind and selfless.
• The masses were drawn to him by his calm demeanour, lovely words of a simple philosophy, and life of renunciation.
• He had moral solutions to people’s problems. As a result, Buddhism expanded quickly.

Buddhism was inexpensive because it lacked the costly rites that typified the Vedic religion.

•  Practical morality, rather than ceremonies and costly rituals, became its guiding element, assisting in the establishment of a healthy social tradition.
• It promoted a spiritual path free of material duties such as ceremonies and offerings to appease gods and Brahmins.

No Caste Discrimination

• Buddhism did not believe in castes. It was anti-caste and treated people from all castes equally.
• Its adherents met together, caste aside, and discussed ethics and morals. Non-Brahmins in particular were attracted to it.

Royal Support

• Buddhism’s quick development was aided by royal patronage.
• The Buddha was a Kshatriya prince himself. Buddhism was patronised by kings like Prasenjit, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Asoka, Kanishka, and Harshavardhan, who helped it grow throughout India and beyond.
• Asoka sent Mahendra and Sanghamitra, two of his sons, to Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism.
• Kanishka and Harshavardhan dedicated their lives to spreading Buddhism across India.

Influence of Universities

• Universities at Nalanda, Taxila, Puspagiri, and Vikramsila played a significant role in the spread of Buddhism.
• Students studying in these institutes from all over India and from other countries were drawn to Buddhism and embraced it.
• Hiuen Tsang, the renowned Chinese pilgrim, was a student at Nalanda University. His teachers included Shilavadra, Dharmapala, Chandrapala, and Divakamitra, all of whom were prominent intellectuals dedicated to the development of Buddhism.

Buddhist Monks and the Buddhist ‘Order’ (Sangha)

• Buddhist monks and the Buddhist ‘Order’ (Sangha) rendered unparalleled assistance to the propagation of Buddhism. Ananda, Sariputta, Maudgalayana, Sudatta, and Upali, among others, were prominent among Buddha’s students.
• They were adamant in their desire to promote Buddhism throughout India.
• The Buddhist sangha grew throughout India, with branches all over the country. Locals were quickly drawn to these Buddhist ‘Order’ branches.
• They led ascetic lifestyles as either monk (bhikshu) or lay devotees (Upasakas). Their example prompted an increasing number of people to emulate it. As a result, Buddhism spread quickly.

Buddhist Councils

• Buddhist Councils were crucial in the teaching and spreading of Buddhism in India.
• After the death of Buddha, 4 Buddhist Councils were held.

Doctrines of Buddhism

The core of Buddha’s doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-Sacchani (four noble truths), Ashtangika-Marga (Eight Fold Path), Middle Path, Social Code of Conduct, and Attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.

Buddha urges that one should not cling to anything (including his teachings). The teachings are only Upaya (skillful means or expedient tools) and are not dogma. It is fingers pointing at the moon and one should not confuse the finger for the moon.

The three pillars of his teachings are:

• Buddha – Founder/Teacher
• Dhamma – Teachings
• Sangha – Order of Buddhist Monks and Nuns (Upasakas)

The four noble truths form the core of the teachings of Buddhism, which are:

1. Dukha (The truth of suffering) – As per Buddhism, everything is suffering (Sabbam Dukham). It refers to the potential to experience pain and not only the actual pain and sorrow experienced by an individual.
2. Samudaya (The truth of the cause of suffering) – Trishna (desire) is the main cause of suffering. Every suffering has a reason and it is a part and parcel of living.
3. Nirodha (The truth of the end of suffering) – the pain/sorrow can be ended by the attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
4. Ashtangika-Marga (The truth of the path leading to the end of suffering) – the end to the suffering is contained in the eightfold path.

Eight-Fold Paths

The Eight-Fold Path is more about unlearning rather than learning, i.e., to learn in order to unlearn and uncover. The path consists of eight interconnected activities and is a process that helps one to move beyond the conditioned responses that obscure one’s nature. The Ashtangika-Marga consists of the following:

1. Right Vision (Samma-Ditthi) – it is about understanding the nature of reality and the path of transformation.
2. Right Thought or Attitude (Samma-Sankappa) – it signifies having emotional intelligence and acting from love and compassion.
3. Right or Whole Speech (Samma-Vacca) – it signifies truthful, clear, uplifting and unharmful communications.
4. Right or Integral Action (Samma-Kammanta) – it signifies an ethical foundation of life, on the principles of non-exploitation of oneself and others. It consists of five rules, which form the ethical code of conduct for the members of the monastic order and the laity. These are:

• Do not commit violence.
• Do not covet the property of others.
• Do not indulge in corrupt practices or sensual behaviour.
• Do not speak a lie.
• Do not use intoxicants.

In addition to these, monks and nuns were strictly instructed to observe the following three additional precepts-

• To avoid eating after mid-day.
• To refrain from any sort of entertainment and use of ornaments to adorn oneself.
• To refrain from using high or luxurious beds, and from handling gold and silver (including money).

5. Right or Proper Livelihood (Samma-Ajiva) – it lays emphasis on livelihood based on correct action and on the ethical principles of non-exploitation. It is believed that this forms the basis of an ideal society.
6. Right Effort or Energy (Samma-Vayama) – it signifies consciously directing our life energy to the transformative path of creative and healing action that fosters wholeness thus moving towards conscious evolution.
7. Right Mindfulness or Thorough Awareness ( Samma-Sati) – it means knowing one’s own self and watching self behaviour. There is a saying by the Buddha, “If you hold yourself dear, watch yourself well”.
8. Right Concentration or Meditation (Samma-Samadhi) – samadhi literally means to be fixed, absorbed in. It means getting one’s whole being absorbed in various levels or modes of consciousness and awareness.

The teachings of the Buddha follow the middle path (the one between extreme indulgence and extreme asceticism). Buddha has emphasised that if a person follows the eightfold path, then he will reach his destination (Nirvana) without the involvement of the monks/nuns. In the above-eightfold path, the word “right” signifies “whole”,” integral”, “complete”, “perfect”.

The ultimate aim of the Buddha’s teachings is the attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana. The Nibbana is a Pali word formed of ‘Ni’ and ‘vanna’, ni means negative and vanna refers to lust or craving. So, Nirvana means departure from cravings and lust. It signifies dying out or extinction of desire, greed, hatred, ignorance, attachment and the sense of ego. In Nibbana, nothing is eternalised nor is anything annihilated, other than the suffering. It is a supramundane state and an attainment (Dhamma) which is within the reach of all, even in this present life. The main difference between the Buddhist conception of Nibbana and the non-Buddhist concept is that Nibbana can be attained during life also. In the non-Buddhist concept, eternal heaven is realised only after death or union with God. When Nibbana is achieved in this life, it is called Sopadisesa Nibbana-dhatu. When an Arhat attains parinibbana (used for the death of enlightened beings such as Buddha), after the dissolution of his body, it is called Anupadisesa Nibbana-dhatu.

The philosophy of Buddha accepts impermanence and transmigration but denies the existence of God and believes that the soul is a myth. Buddhism teaches the existence of ten realms of being and one can be born as any one of them. At the top is Buddha followed by Bodhisattva (an enlightened being destined to be a Buddha but purposely remains on earth to propagate teachings), Pratyeka Buddha (a Buddha on their own), Sravaka (disciple of Buddha), heavenly beings (superhumans, angels), human beings, Asura (fighting spirits), beasts, Preta (hungry ghosts) and depraved men (hellish beings). These ten realms of existence are “mutually immanent and mutually inclusive”, each one having in it the remaining nine realms, e.g., the realm of human beings has all other nine states – from hell to Buddhahood in it. A man can be selfish or can rise to the enlightened state of Buddha. In Buddhism, karma is the result of actions depending on the intentions more than the action itself. Rebirth is the result of the karma of the previous life. Though Buddhism lays emphasis on non-violence, it doesn’t forbid masses from eating meat.

Other Important Aspects of Buddhism

Some other important aspects of Buddhism include:

• The Five Aggregates (Pancha-khanda or Panch skandha).
• The Law of Dependent Origination (Paticca- samuppada).

The Five Aggregates

The Buddha believed that a human being is a collection of Five Aggregates and a proper understanding of these is an essential step towards the attainment of freedom from suffering:

1. Material Form (Rupa) – It includes the five physical organs (ear, eye, tongue, nose & body) and the corresponding objects of the sense organs (sound, sight, taste, smell and tangible objects).
2. Feeling or Sensation (Vedana) – The aggregate of feelings arising out of contact with the objects of the senses is of three kinds-pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent.
3. Perception (Sanna) – This aggregate is the capacity to recognise & conceptualize things by associating them with other things.
4. Mental formation (Santharas) – This aggregate may be described as a conditioned response to the object of experience. In this sense, it partakes the meaning of habit as well. However, it not only has a static value, but dynamic value as well.
5. Consciousness (Vinnana) – The aggregate of consciousness is an indispensable element in the prediction of experience. It is essential to understand that consciousness depends on the other aggregates and does not exist independently.

All the Five Aggregates of experience are impermanent and constantly changing, like our perceptions change over time. Buddha stresses that the utility of the five aggregates is to make people understand them in terms of impersonal processes and through this understanding, they can get rid of the idea of self and can overcome hope and fear. They can regard happiness and pain, praise and blame and everything with equanimity, with even-mindedness and thus will then no longer be subject to the imbalance of alternating between hope and fear.

The Law of Dependent Origination (Paticca- Samuppada)

The Law of Dependent Origination explains the reason of suffering (Dukkha), as well as the key to its liberation. The law is associated with twelve links (Nidanas)-all arranged in a wheel and one leading to the next.  This principle can be given in a short formula of four lines-

                           When this is, that is

                          This arising, that arises

                          When this is not, that is not

                          This ceasing, that ceases.

This law emphasizes an important principle that all phenomena in this universe are relative, conditioned states and do not arise independently of supportive conditions.

The twelve links of the Dependent Origination are:

1. Ignorance (Avija)
2. Mental formation (Sankhara)
3. Consciousness (Vinnana)
4. Name & Form (Nama-Rupa)
5. The six senses (Salayatana)
6. Contact (Phassa)
7. Feeling (Vedana)
8. Craving (Tanha)
9. Clinging (Upadana)
10. Becoming (Bhava)
11. Birth (Jati)
12. Aging & death (Jara-marana)