Calendars in India

Calendars in India

Introduction

A calendar is a system for organizing days for social, religious, commercial, or administrative purposes.
It typically includes periods such as days, weeks, months, and years.
A date designates a single, specific day within such a system.
A calendar can also refer to a physical record (often paper) of such a system.

In India, various systems have been used at different times to mark the beginning of a new year. These systems belong to one of the following three types:

Solar System
Lunar System
Luni-Solar System

These systems are based on astronomical years, following the movement of celestial bodies:

Solar Year
- Represents the time taken by the Earth to revolve around the Sun, passing through a point of the ecliptic (solstice or equinox).
- Consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds.
- Maintains a close correspondence between the year and the seasons.
- Has 12 months in total.
Lunar Year
- Consists of 12 months or lunations.
- Each lunation is a synodic month measured by the period between two successive full moons or new moons.
- Since a lunar month varies from 29.26 to 29.80 days, the lunar year is 354 days, 11 days shorter than the solar year.
- This difference is adjusted by intercalation or suppression, adding an intercalary month (Adhik Masa) every 2 years and 6 months.
Luni-Solar Year
- The year is calculated by the solar cycle and the months by the lunar divisions, as in Hindu calendars.
- Adjustments between the solar and lunar cycles are made by intercalation and suppression of days and months.

Various months within these systems:

Solar Month
- The solar year has 12 months named after the twelve zodiac signs (Rashis or mansions):
  - Mesha (Aries)
  - Vrishabham (Taurus)
  - Mithuna, the pairs (Gemini)
  - Karka, the crab (Cancer)
  - Simha, the lion (Leo)
  - Kanya, the maiden (Virgo)
  - Tula, the scales (Libra)
  - Vrischika, the scorpion (Scorpio)
  - Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius)
  - Makara, the sea monster (Capricorn)
  - Kumbha, the water pot (Aquarius)
  - Mina, the fish (Pisces)

Lunar Month
- Ends either with new moon (amavasya) or full moon (purnima).
- There are two methods for the commencement of the month under the lunar system:
  - Amasanta: Begins with the bright fortnight (Bright-half) on the day following the new moon.
  - Purnimanta: Begins with the dark fortnight (Dark-half) on the day following the full moon.

Out of the two types of months described above, it is the lunar month or the moon month which is followed in most parts of the nation.

Adhik Masa (Intercalary Month)
- Added to a lunar year after every 2 years and 6 months.
- Adjusts the difference between the lunar year (354 days) and the solar year to ensure that natural events and seasonal cycles align correctly.
- Known as Adhik Masa or Mal Masa.
- Ensures that the natural events and cycle of seasons, which occurred in particular months, are not disturbed by falling into different months.
Lunar Year
- Comprises 354 days, falling short of the solar year by 11 days annually.
- To adjust these 11 days, Adhik Masa is added to the lunar calendar after every 2 years and 6 months.
Sun’s Motion and Rashis
- The Sun passes from one rashi to another every month.
- Due to the non-uniform apparent motion of the Sun, the time for passing through different rashis varies.
- The entry of the Sun into a zodiac sign is called a Sankraman or Sankranti, which occurs every month.
- There are 12 such sankramans during a year.
Adhik Masa Introduction
- Sometimes, the Sun does not pass through any of the rashis during a lunar month.
- When this occurs, and two consecutive moon days come between two sankramans, Adhik Masa is introduced.
- Adhik Masa is the month during which there is no sankranti.
Kshaya Masa
- The month during which there are two suryasankrantis is called Kshaya Masa.
- This month is deleted or dropped from the calendar.

The months in various calendar forms are divided into Pakshas (fortnights), weeks, and days.

Pakshas (Fortnights) under the Lunar Calendar

Shukla Paksha (Bright Half): Starts the day following the new moon.
Krishna Paksha (Dark Half): Starts the day following the full moon.

Lunar Day (Tithi or Vasara) vs. Solar Day (Divasa)

The lunar day is called Tithi or Vasara.
The solar day is called Divasa.
The duration of a tithi is shorter than a divasa.
The average duration of a tithi is 23 hours and 37 minutes, which is 23 minutes less than a divasa.

Tithi and Divasa Breakdown

One day and night = 1 divasa = 24 hours = 60 ghatikas
One ghatika = 60 palas = 24 minutes
One pala = 60 vipalas = 24 seconds
Two ghatikas = 1 Muhurta = 48 minutes
2.5 muhurtas = 2 hours

Hindu Calendar (Panchanga)

Panchanga or the Hindu Calendar considers five angas (limbs):
- Year
- Month
- Paksha (Fortnight)
- Tithi (Lunar Day)
- Ghatika (Time Division)
- Alternatively:
  - Tithi
  - Vaara (Weekday)
  - Nakshatra (Constellation)
  - Yoga (Lunar Day Combination)
  - Karana (Half Tithi)

Rashis and Nakshatras

The twelve places or rashis through which the Sun passes during a year are named after groups of stars called Nakshatras.
There are 28 nakshatras or constellations in total.
Nakshatras are unequal in size and number of stars, with some having only one or two stars.
Each rashi consists of two to three nakshatras.

Solar Year Division

The solar year is divided into two halves:
- Uttarayana:
  - First six months from Makara Sankranti to Karka Sankranti (Paush/January to Ashadh/June).
  - Known as God’s Day.
- Dakshinayana:
  - Last six months from July to December.
  - Known as God’s Night.
One solar year equals one day and one night of the God.

The Four Eras (Yugas)

According to Hindu beliefs, Yuga refers to an epoch or era with a four age-cycle.

Yugas in Ascending Order

Satya Yuga or Krta Yuga
- Duration: 1,728,000 years
- Characteristics:
  - First and golden Yuga
  - Age of truth and perfection
  - One religion, all men saintly
  - No need for religious ceremonies, everyone could attain supreme blessedness
  - No agriculture or mining, earth yielded riches on its own
  - Pleasant weather, no disease or fear
Treta Yuga
- Duration: 1,296,000 years
- Characteristics:
  - Slightly diminished virtue
  - Rise of many emperors, frequent wars
  - Extreme weather, formation of oceans and deserts
  - Emergence of agriculture, labor, and mining
  - Average human lifespan: 1,000-10,000 years
Dvapara Yuga
- Duration: 864,000 years
- Characteristics:
  - People tainted with tamasic qualities, weaker than ancestors
  - Rampant diseases, widespread discontent
  - Frequent conflicts
  - Average human lifespan: a few centuries
Kali Yuga
- Duration: 432,000 years
- Characteristics:
  - Age of darkness and ignorance
  - People become sinners, lack virtue
  - Slaves to passions, significantly weaker than ancestors in Satya Yuga
  - Average human lifespan: barely 100 years, reducing to 20 years by the end of the Yuga
- Present Yuga, started in 3102 BC

Mahayuga

These four Yugas constitute one Mahayuga, equaling 4.32 million human years.

Day of Brahma

1,000 Mahayugas in one day of Brahma, equaling 4.32 billion human years.

Mahakalpa

Consists of 100 years of Brahma.

Classification of Indian Calendar Forms

In India, various forms of calendars came into picture based on the various eras to which it relates. They are discussed below

Vikram Samvat

Started around 56 BC, 56 years before the Christian era.
Believed to have been established by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain or the Malwa Ganarajya.
A luni-solar calendar based on ancient Hindu traditions.
56.7 years ahead of the solar Gregorian calendar.
New year begins with the first day after the new moon in Chaitra (March-April).
In Nepal, it begins in mid-April.
Has 354 days divided into 12 months: Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyeshtha, Ashadha, Sravana, Bhadrapada, Ashwina, Kartika, Margashirsha, Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna.
Starts with Kartika as the first month in most parts of India.
Each month is divided into two halves: the bright half and the dark half.
Adhik Masa (extra month) added every 3 years and every 5 years (13 months) to adjust the 11-day difference with the solar year.
Zero year is 56 BC.

Vikram Samvat	Gregorian Calendar
Baishakh	April-May
Jestha	May-June
Ashadh	June-July
Shrawan	July-August
Bhadra	August-September
Ashwin	September-October
Kartik	October-November
Mangsir	November-December
Poush	December-January
Magh	January-February
Falgun	February-March
Chaitra	March-April

Saka Samvat

Initiated by King Shalivahan in 78 AD.
Also known as the Saka era.
A luni-solar calendar similar to Vikram Samvat.
Zero year begins near the vernal equinox of 78 AD.
Starts on 22nd March (21st March in leap years).
Fixed number of days in each month.
Same months as Vikram Samvat: Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyeshtha, Ashadha, Shravana, Bhadrapada, Ashwina, Kartika, Margashirsha, Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna.
365 days in a Saka year.

Saka Samvat	Gregorian Calendar
Chhaitra	March 21 – April 20
Vaishakha	April 21-May 21
Jyeshtha	May 22-June 21
Ashadha	June 22- July 22
Shravana	July 23-August 22
Bhaadra	August 22-September 22
Ashwin	September 23-October 22
Kartika	October 23-November 21
Agrahayana	November 22-December 21
Pausha	December 22-January 20
Magha	January 21- February 19
Phalguna	February 20-March 20/21

Hijri Calendar

Arabic origin, previously termed Amulfil.
Changed to Hijri after Prophet Mohammed’s hijrat from Mecca to Madina in 622 AD.
Zero year is 622 AD.
Lunar calendar with 12 months and 354 days in a year.
Day commences with sunset.
Adopted in India during the reign of Muslim rulers.
The day commences with a sunset in this calendar. This calendar was adopted in India during the reign of the Muslims rulers.

The 12 months under Hijri era are:

Muharram – first month, during which any business or travel is prohibited. (1st Muharram – Islamic New Year)
Safar – good for travel, business and fighting.
Rabi-al-Awwal – commencement of the spring.
Rabi-ath-thani – indicates end of the spring.
Jumada-al-ula – commencement of the cold season.
Jumada-al-akhirah – conclusion of the cold season.
Rajab – to make preparation to fence the fields.
Shaban – the month of harvesting.
Ramadan – ninth month with excessive heat when people keep fasts for purification of soul.
Shawwal – a month to go out for hunting. (1st Shawwal – Eid-ul-Fitar)
Dhu-al-Qadah – month to get the camels ready for travel.
Dhu-al-Hijjah – last month, dedicated to pilgrimage. (8-13 Dhu-al-Hijjah: Hajj to Mecca)
Out of these 12 months, four months are considered sacred: 1st, 7th,
11th and 12th

No adjustment with the solar year; falls short by one year every 33 years compared to the Gregorian calendar.

Gregorian Calendar

Based on the birthday of Jesus Christ.
Solar year starting from January 1st.
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds.
Intercalation system adds one day to February every four years (leap year).
Year known as a civil year.

Note : The Zoroastrian Calendar era commenced from 632 AD. Parsis in India use Shahenshahi Calendar, unlike Iranians who use Qadimi Calender. Under Shahenshahi Calender, Nowruz or new year usually occurs on March 20/21/22. Nowruz is day of vernal equinox.

National Calendar of India

Saka Calendar as National Calendar of India

Official civil calendar of India, used through government notification in the Official Gazette.
Utilized in news broadcasts by All India Radio, government-issued calendars, and communication documents.
Originally named Saka Samvat, a Hindu calendar.
Used for calculating days of religious significance in Hinduism.
Adopted as the National Calendar in 1957 by the Calendar Reforms Committee set up by the Government of India.
Efforts were made to align astronomical data and rectify local errors.
Came into use from 22 March 1957 (Gregorian calendar), corresponding to Chaitra 1, 1879 (Saka Samvat).
Adopted to synchronize the usage of 30 different calendars in use in India at that time.

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