SSC CGL 2023 TIER – 1 Result Out

Name of Post:	SSC Combined Graduate Level CGL Exam 2023 Tier I Result for 8440 Post
Post Date / Update:	19 September 2023 \| 10:18 PM
Short Information :	Staff Selection Commission (SSC) has released the notification of Combined Graduate Level CGL Examination 2023. Those Candidate Are Appeared in CBT Exam Can Check the Result. Read the notification for eligibility, age limit, selection procedure, syllabus, pattern, pay scale and all other information in SSC CGL Recruitment Exam 2022.

Staff Selection Commission (SSC)

SSC Combined Graduate Level SSC-CGL Examination 2023

SSC CGL 2023 Exam Short Details of Notification

Important Dates

Application Begin : 03/04/2023
Last Date for Apply Online : 03/05/2023 upto 11:00 PM Only
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Correction Date : 10-11 May 2023
Exam Date Tier I : 14-27 July 2023
Answer Key Available : 01/08/2023
Tier I Result Available : 19/09/2023
Exam Date Tier II : 25-27 October 2023

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Minimum Age : 18 Years.
Maximum Age : 27-32 Years (Post Wise)
Age Relaxation Extra as per SSC CGL Graduate Level Exam 2023 Recruitment Rules.

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Combined Graduate Level CGL 2023 Various Post

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SSC Combined Graduate Level 2023 Department Wise Details

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Indian Audit & Accounts Department under C&AG

Assistant Audit Officer

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Age Limit : 18-30 Years.

Assistant Accounts Officer

Central Secretariat Service

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CBDT

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Department of Post

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Central Bureau of Narcotics

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Offices under C&AG

Divisional Accountant

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Age Limit : 18-30 Years.

National Investigation Agency (NIA)

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M/O Statistics & Program Implementation

Junior Statistical Officer (JSO)

Bachelor Degree in Any Stream with at Least 60% Marks in Math Subject in 12th Standard OR Bachelor Degree with Statistics Subject.
Age Limit : 18-32 Years.

Registrar General of India

Statistical Investigator Grade-II

Bachelor Degree in Any Stream with Statistics as a Subject.
Age Limit : 18-30 Years.

Offices under C&AG

Auditor

Bachelor Degree in Any Stream.
Age Limit : 18-27 Years.

Other Ministry / Department

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Offices under CGDA

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Accountant

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Central Govt. Offices/ Ministries other than CSCS cadres.

Senior Secretariat Assistant/ Upper Division Clerks

Bachelor Degree in Any Stream.
Age Limit : 18-27 Years

CBDT

Tax Assistant

Bachelor Degree in Any Stream.
Age Limit : 18-27 Years

CBIC

Tax Assistant

Bachelor Degree in Any Stream.
Age Limit : 18-27 Years

Central Bureau of Narcotics

Sub Inspector

Bachelor Degree in Any Stream.
Age Limit : 18-27 Years

How to Fill SSC CGL 2023 Online Form

Staff Selection Commission SSC Are Issued Combined Graduate Level CGL Exam 2023 Notification and Invited Online Application Form for the SSC Graduate Level Recruitment 2023 Candidate Can Apply Online for 03/04/2023 to 03/05/2023.
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SSC CGL 2023 Tier – 1 Result Out !!

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Chapter 13 : Cholas and other South Indian Kingdoms

Chapter 13 : Cholas and other South Indian Kingdoms

The Tamil Chola dynasty ruled in southern India and is considered one of the longest-ruling dynasties in history. The earliest datable references to it are in Ashoka inscriptions from the third century B.C. The dynasty ruled over various sized territories until the 13th century AD. The Cholas were based in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but at their peak from the late 9th century to the early 13th century, they ruled over a much larger area. The Cholas left behind a legacy that includes Tamil literature and the great living Chola Temples. They established a disciplined bureaucracy and pioneered a centralized form of government. The Chola school of art spread throughout Southeast Asia, influencing architecture and art.

Region of Cholas

Origin of the Cholas

Records available after the Sangam Age show that the Cholas remained in the Kaveri region as subordinates to the Pallavas.
The resurgence of the Cholas began with the conquest of the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar by Vijayalaya (850–871 CE).
In 850, he founded the Chola kingdom and built the city of Thanjavur. As a result, historians refer to them as the Later Cholas or Imperial Cholas.
The Cholas trace their ancestry to the Karikala, the most well-known of the Cholas of the Sangam age, according to copper plate documents of his successors.
The progenitor of their lineage is an eponymous king named ‘Chola,’ according to their genealogy.
In these copper plates, the names Killi, Kochenganan, and Karikalan are mentioned as members of the line.
From Parantaka I (907–955) to Kulothunga III (1163–1216), Vijayalaya’s illustrious successors brought the Cholas glory and fame.
Parantaka Chola set the tone for territorial expansion and broadened the base of governance.
rajaraja I (985–1014), the builder of the most beautiful Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur, and his son Rajendra I (1014–1044), whose naval operation extended as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated the advances made by their predecessors and went on to establish Chola hegemony in peninsular India.

Rulers of Cholas

Vijayalaya (850 CE)

The Cholas’ greatness was resurrected by the Vijayalaya dynasty. Around A.D. 850, Vijayalaya established the Imperial Chola dynasty, most likely as a vassal of the Pallava king.
Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore and made it his capital during the conflict between the Pallavas and the Pandyas.
Unfortunately, the precise relationship of Vijayalaya to the earlier Cholas is unknown.
He began his reign in the vicinity of Uraiyur, most likely as a vassal of the Pallava king.
Vijayalaya is said to have taken Tanjavur or Tanjore from the Muttaraiyar chiefs, who supported the Pandya monarch, Varagunavarman.

Aditya I (871 – 907 CE)

Around A.D. 875, Vijayalaya was succeeded by his capable son, Aditya I.
Aditya I defeated Pallava king Aparajita as well as Kongu ruler Parantaka Viranarayana.
Aditya I significantly increased the family’s power and prestige by deposing Pallava Aparajitavarman and bringing Tondamandalarh under his control around 890 A.D.
Aditya I is also credited with conquering Kongudesa and capturing Talkad in the Western Garigas.
Aditya I was a devotee of Siva, and he erected several temples in his honour.

Parantaka I (907 – 955 CE)

Aditya I was quickly succeeded by his son Parantaka I, who reigned from 907 to 955. During his reign, Cholas’ power rose to the pinnacle.
He annexed the territory of the Pandya King and quickly defeated the Vadumbas. He swept away all traces of Pallava’s power, but was defeated by Rashtrakutas.
When Parantaka I ascended the throne, the Chola realm encompassed almost the entire eastern country, from Kalahasti and Madras in the north to the Kaveri in the south, and he expanded it even further during his long reign.
Parantaka I eventually swept away all traces of Pallava power, extending his authority all the way to Nellore in the north.

Parantaka II/ Sundara Chola (957 – 973 CE)

Parantaka Chola II was a Chola emperor. He was also known as Sundara Chola because he was considered the pinnacle of male beauty.
He was the son of Arinjaya Chola and Kalyani, a princess from the Vaidumba clan, an Andhra dynasty based in Kurnool and Kadapa districts.
Parantaka II ascended the Chola throne despite the fact that his cousin Uttama Chola, the son of Gandaraditya (the elder brother of Arinjaya), was still alive and had equal, if not greater, claim to the Chola throne.
When Parantaka II became king, the Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality. The Pandyas in the south had resurrected their fortunes, defeating Chola armies and occupying their ancestral lands.

Uttama Chola (973 – 985 CE)

Uttama Chola, born Madurantaka, ascended the Chola throne around 970 CE, succeeding Parantaka Chola II.
Madurantaka Uttama Chola’s reign is placed after Aditya II, according to Rajendra Chola’s Tiruvalangadu plates.
The latter may have been a co-regent of his father Sundara Chola and appears to have died before he could formally ascend the throne.
Uttama was Parantaka II’s cousin and the son of Sembiyan Mahadevi and Gandaraditya.
He had several wives. Some of them are Orattanan Sorabbaiyar, Tribhuvana Mahadeviyar, Kaduvettigal Nandippottairaiyar, Siddhavadavan Suttiyar, and others.

Rajaraja I/ Arumolivarman (985 – 1014 CE)

Rajaraja Chola I, widely regarded as the greatest king of the Chola Empire, reigned between 985 and 1014 C.E.
By conquering the kingdoms of southern India, he laid the groundwork for the Chola kingdom’s expansion into an empire.
He was involved in numerous battles with the Chalukyas in the north and the Pandyas in the south. Rajaraja established the Chalukya Chola dynasty by conquering Vengi.
He invaded Sri Lanka and began the island’s century-long Chola occupation.

Rajendra I (1014 – 1044 CE)

Rajendra Chola I often described as Rajendra the Great, also known as Gangaikonda Chola “the bringer of the Ganges,” was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1014 to 1044 CE.
Rajendra took over as Rajaraja I’s successor in 1014 CE. Under Rajendra I, the vast Chola empire included most of modern-day south India, with the river Krishna as its northern limit, as well as Sri Lanka, the Laccadives, and the Maldives.
He led a successful military expedition to the Ganges through Orissa and Bengal, bringing Ganges water to Gangaikondacholapuram, his new capital in the Kaveri Delta.
Rajendra’s audacious campaign against the Srivijaya (the southern Malay peninsula and Sumatra) is thought to have begun around 1025 CE.
Rajendra was succeeded by Rajadhiraja I (1044 – 1052).

Rajadhiraja I (1044 – 1052 CE)

Rajendra I’s son was Rajadhiraja I (r. 1044-52). He ascended to the throne in 1044, but he had been involved with his father’s administration since 1018, and he had also distinguished himself in warfare.
Rajadhiraja I faced many difficulties upon ascending to the throne, but all opposition was quickly defeated.
He defeated the Pandya and Kerala kings who were allied with the rulers of Lanka (Ceylon) known as Vikkamabahu, Vikkamapandu, Vira-Salamegha, and Sri-Vallabha-Madanaraja.
He also fought against Somesvara I Ahavamalla, the Western Chalukya monarch (c. 1042-68).
At first, fortune appears to have favoured the Chola sovereign, but he was killed in the famous battle of Koppam in May, 1052 A.D.

Rajendra II (1054 – 1063 CE)

Rajendra Chola II reigned as the Chola emperor after his elder brother Rajadhiraja Chola I died in the 11th century.
After his elder brother Rajadhiraja Chola’s death in 1052, he is best remembered for his role in the Battle of Koppam, where he dramatically turned the tables on the Chalukyan King Someshwara I.
During his early reign, he led an expedition to Sri Lanka, during which the Sri Lanka army was routed and their king, Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa, was forced to seek refuge in a mountain fortress.
He kept the Chola Empire well-maintained, as evidenced by the distribution of his records, which show that the Chola Empire did not lose any territory during his reign by protecting it.

Virarajendra (1063 – 1067 CE)

Rajendra II’s elder brother was Vira-Rajendra. He ascended to the throne after his brother and ruled for the next seven years. He repelled the Chalukya King’s invasion and defeated him.
He reclaimed Vengi and thwarted the efforts of Ceylon’s Vijayabahu, who was attempting to drive the Cholas out of the country.
When Someswara II ascended to the throne of the Chalukyas, Rajendra made some incursions but later built friendly ties by giving his daughter to Vikramaditya.
Soon after Vira Rajendra’s death in 1070, a contest for the throne erupted, with Athirajendra, the heir apparent, ascending to the throne.
Vijayabahu established Ceylon’s independence after a brief but uneven reign.

Athirajendra (1067 – 1070 CE)

Athirajendra Chola reigned as Chola king for only a few months, succeeding his father Virarajendra Chola. Civil unrest, possibly religious in nature, characterised his reign.
Athirajendra Chola was the Chola Dynasty’s final clan. He was assassinated during a religious uprising.
After the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra, who was closely related to the Chola clan through his mother Kundavai, a daughter of Rajaraja Chola, died in 1061 CE, Athirajindra and Virarajendra Chola intervened in Vengi succession disputes.

Kulottunga I (1070 – 1122 CE)

Kulottunga Chola was a great Chola Empire king who reigned in the late 11th and early 12th centuries.
He was one of the sovereigns given the title Kulottunga, which literally means “exalter of his race.”
During his early reign, he conducted a land survey and settlement to serve as the basis for taxation.
Jayamkondar, his court poet, wrote the poem Kalingattu parani to commemorate Kulottunga Chola’s military victories.
Several land grants were given to members of the Shudra community who were generals and royal officials during his reign, indicating that he was a liberal ruler.
He established Chola dominance over Malaysia’s Sri Vijaya province Kedah.

Administration of Cholas

Tanjore was the Chola capital. The Chola Empire was divided into three major administrative units: the Central Government, the Provincial Government, and the Local Government. The Uttaramerur inscriptions shed light on the Chola administration.
The king was in charge of the administration. The Chola kingship was hereditary. According to Chola royal family tradition, the eldest son succeeded the king to the Chola throne. Yuvaraja was the name of the heir apparent.
The tiger was the royal emblem of Chola kings. A council of ministers aided the king in his work. Lower-level officials were referred to as Siruntaram, while higher-level officials were referred to as Peruntaram.
The Chola government relied heavily on land revenue as its primary source of revenue. As a tax, one-sixth of the land’s produce was collected.
Customs and tolls were the empire’s other source of revenue, in addition to land revenue. Furthermore, taxes on ports, forests, and mines aided the king’s coffers.
The Cholas had a strong army and navy. The army was made up of 70 regiments. The Chola kings paid a high price to import highly efficient Arabian horses.
The Chola king served as chief justice, as major cases were tried by the king himself. Minor village disputes were heard by the village assembly.

Society and Economy of Cholas

Landholding was the primary determinant of social status and hierarchy in the Chola period’s predominantly agrarian society.
The Brahmin landholders known as brahmadeya-kilavars were created at the top brahmadeya settlements with tax exemption, displacing (kudi neekki) the local peasants. Temples were given land known as devadana, which was tax-free, as in brahmadeyams.
During this time, the temples became a focal point for a variety of activities. The landowners of the vellanvagai villages were next in the social hierarchy.
Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land and were forced to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and vellanvagai village holders.
While landowners kept melvaram (the majority of the harvest), the ulukudi got kizh varam (lower share). Slaves (adimaigal) and labourers (paniceymakkal) remained at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
During the Chola period, both Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished.
Agriculture and industry both thrived. The reclamation of forest lands, as well as the construction and upkeep of irrigation tanks, resulted in agricultural prosperity. Kanchi’s weaving industry thrived, particularly silk weaving.
The metal works evolved as a result of the high demand for images for temples and utensils.
With trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds, commerce and trade were brisk. Gold, silver, and copper coins of various denominations were abundantly issued.
The Chola Empire had extensive commercial contacts with China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia. To strengthen the cavalry, Arabian horses were imported in large numbers.

Society and Economy of Cholas

Landholding was the primary determinant of social status and hierarchy in the Chola period’s predominantly agrarian society.
The Brahmin landholders known as brahmadeya-kilavars were created at the top brahmadeya settlements with tax exemption, displacing (kudi neekki) the local peasants. Temples were given land known as devadana, which was tax-free, as in brahmadeyams.
During this time, the temples became a focal point for a variety of activities. The landowners of the vellanvagai villages were next in the social hierarchy.
Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land and were forced to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and vellanvagai village holders.
While landowners kept melvaram (the majority of the harvest), the ulukudi got kizh varam (lower share). Slaves (adimaigal) and labourers (paniceymakkal) remained at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
During the Chola period, both Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished.
Agriculture and industry both thrived. The reclamation of forest lands, as well as the construction and upkeep of irrigation tanks, resulted in agricultural prosperity. Kanchi’s weaving industry thrived, particularly silk weaving.
The metal works evolved as a result of the high demand for images for temples and utensils.
With trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds, commerce and trade were brisk. Gold, silver, and copper coins of various denominations were abundantly issued.
The Chola Empire had extensive commercial contacts with China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia. To strengthen the cavalry, Arabian horses were imported in large numbers.

Education and Literature of Cholas

Education was also given priority. Aside from temples and maths as educational centres, several educational institutions flourished.
The inscriptions at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, and Thirubhuvanai provide information about the colleges that existed in these locations.
In addition to the Vedas and Epics, subjects such as mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions. Endowment of lands was made to run these institutions.
During the Chola period, Tamil literature reached its pinnacle. Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi wrote Sivakasintamani in the tenth century.
The Ramayana by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the two masterworks of this era. Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes Kulotunga I’s Kalinga war.
Ottakuthar’s Moovarula depicts three Chola kings’ lives. Pugalendi is the author of the Nalavenba.
The Chola period gave birth to works on Tamil grammar such as Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi, and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra.

Decline of Cholas

From the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, the Chola dynasty ruled over South India. Local chiefs began to gain prominence by the end of the twelfth century, weakening the centre.
With frequent Pandya invasions, the once-mighty empire was reduced to the status of a dependent on the far stronger Hoysalas.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, the Pandyan ruler, sacked Gangaikonda Chozhapuram, the Chola capital, in 1264.
With Kanchipuram already lost to the Telugu Cholas, the remaining Chola territories fell into the hands of the Pandyan king.
The Chola dynasty came to an end in 1279, when King Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last Chola king, Rajendra Chola III, and established Pandya rule.

The Cheras (9th to 12th Century)

The Cheras were a Dravidian sovereign dynasty from Tamil Nadu. They were the first in the area to establish a medieval ruling dynasty, ruled over vast stretches of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, respectively, in south-eastern and south-western India. There were two distinct periods in this dynasty. The Early Chera governed between the 4th and 5th centuries BC, and the Later Chera (also known as the Kulasekharas) ruled between the 8th and 12th centuries AD.

Cheras – Background

The Chera dynasty was one of the most significant dynasties of the Sangam period in regions of Tamil Nadu and the present-day state of Kerala.
In the early centuries of the Common Era, the early Cheras was known as one of the three major powers of ancient Tamilakam, alongside the Cholas of Uraiyur and the Pandyas of Madurai.
They were also referred to as ‘Keraputras,‘ and their kingdom was located to the west and north of the Pandya kingdom.
The Cheras’ history has been marked by constant conflict with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
Uthiyan Cheralathan is regarded as the earliest known ruler of the Chera line as per Tamil scriptures.
His ruling base was in Kuzhumur in Kuttanad, Kerala.
Whereas, Kulasekhara Alwar was the first king of the later Chera kingdom, which later evolved into the Kulasekhara dynasty.
For more than five centuries, there was no trace of a Chera monarch, but Kulasekhara Alwar appeared on the scene, claiming to be a descendant of the Chera.
Most likely he ruled around 800 AD from Tiruvanchikkulam in the present state of Kerala and he ruled for more than 20 years.
Then throne was held by Ramavarma; Kulasekhara Perumal, Ramar Tiruvati, or Kulasekhara Koyiladhikarikal was his name.
His tenure was marked by political turmoil and insecurity.
He was the last ruler of the Later Chera dynasty.

Important Rulers of Cheras

Uthiyan Cheralathan (1st to 3rd century AD)

Uthiyan Cheralatan, also known as Udiyanjeral was the first Chera ruler of ancient South India during the Sangam period.
He established his capital in Kuzhumur, Kuttanad (Kerala), and expanded his kingdom northward and eastward from his birthplace.
His life span is estimated to be between the first and third centuries AD.
His elephant and cavalry units are acclaimed.
At Kuzhumur, he is supposed to have had his famed royal kitchen. He is also said to have fed the Kauravas and Pandavas armies during the Mahabharata war.
In a battle named ‘Battle of Venni’ his back was injured while commanding the army with Karikala Chola and he died.

Kulashekhara Alwar (800 AD)

Maharaja Kulasekhara Alwar also known as Kulasekhara Varman or Kulasekhara Nayanar was born into the Travancore royal family (Kerala).
As a king of the later Chera Dynasty, his reign is said to have lasted from 800 to 820 AD.
Maharaja Kulasekhara Varman became a well-established ruler who not only ruled Chera land but also invaded and ruled the neighbouring Chola and Pandya lands.
He quickly rose to prominence as one of South India’s great kings. His kingdom consists of the lands of Uraiyur, Madurai and Kongu.
His administration was flawless, the people were happy and lived in peace, in his kingdom.
He later transformed into a saint by the preachings of Vaishnava saints.
In his final days, he visited the various shrine at Tirunagari, near present-day Tinivelli.
He died there, most likely at the age of 67.

Rama Varma Kulasekhara (1090–1102 AD)

Ramavarma Kulasekhara was the last ruler of medieval Kerala’s Chera Perumal dynasty.
He lived during the reigns of Chola monarchs Kulottunga I (1070–1120) and Vikrama Chola (1118–35 AD).
A considerably more deadly phase of the long struggle between Cholas and Cheras begins.
He overcomes the Cholas, but due to his hostility with the local Brahmins, he is unable to reclaim his already-fractured empire.
Internal strife undermines the state even more, and Rama Varma abdicates the crown and dies soon after.

Administration of Cheras

The Chera kingdom’s most important political institution was the monarchy. The king’s personality was linked with a great deal of pomp and ceremony.
The royal Queen also held an extremely high and privileged position, and she sat with the king at all religious events.
The Shilappadikaram mentions the ‘king’s council’ and the other ‘five assemblies’ in the administration of the Chera Dynasty.
The Chera king’s council consists of the most powerful noblemen, rajas of the districts such as the ‘ruler of Alumbil,’
The council was not only the highest advisory body, but also the final judicial tribunal which used to help the Chera king when he held his daily durbar in order to hear petitions and deliver judgments.
The Chera kingdom was divided into four divisions, the northernmost division was Cannanore and the southernmost was near Trivandrum.
The Chief Minister in the Chera dynasty served in the same manner as the powerful dewans who, until the twentieth century, administered the states of Travancore and Cochin on behalf of the native princes.
The chief priest, who served as the Nair war goddess and chief astrologer, wielded great power in determining policy.
Another important institution was the “Manram” which operated in each village of the Chera kingdom.
Its meetings were frequently held under a banyan tree by village elders, and they assisted in resolving local issues.
The ancient Chera state had an elaborate executive structure in addition to collective bodies that influence royal policy and rendered legal judgments.

Society of Cheras

The majority of the Chera people practised native Dravidian religions.
Religious practices may have primarily consisted of performing sacrifices to various gods, such as the supreme god Murugan.
Extensive offerings of meat and toddy were made to the war goddess Kottava.
Kottava is thought to have been assimilated into the current form of the goddess Durga.
The first wave of Brahmin migration to Chera territory is thought to have occurred around the third century BCE, alongside or behind Jain and Buddhist missionaries.
While the vast majority of the population adhered to native Dravidian practises, a small percentage of the population, primarily migrants, adhered to Jainism, Buddhism, and Brahmanism. Jewish and Christian populations were also known to have existed in Kerala.
Early Tamil texts do make several references to social stratification, as indicated by the use of the word kudi (“group”) to denote “caste.“
The high status accorded to women was a striking feature of Cheras society.
In Cheras society, the primary occupation of people was agriculture and pastoralism.

Economy of Cheras

The early Chera economy was primarily based on “pastoral-cum-agrarian” activities and trade in the Indian Ocean.
The emphasis on agriculture grew over time, and it served as the foundation for larger economic change.
Exchange relations with Graeco-Roman merchants, the “Yavanas,” and with north India provided significant economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom.
Spice trade with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators dates back before the Common Era.
The Periplus Maris Erythraei depicts the “trade” in Keprobotras‘ territory in great detail. According to the Periplus, Muziris was the most important centre on the Malabar Coast.
The Chera country “exported” bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls, and gems to Middle Eastern and Mediterranean kingdoms.
The Romans brought large amounts of gold in exchange for black pepper. The discovery of Roman coin hoards in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu attests to this.
The Chera dynasty was known for producing the finest quality of steel in the world.
They produce Seric Iron for the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese, and Arabs.
The steel was exported in the form of steely iron cakes known as “Wootz.” Wootz steel from India contained a high level of carbon.

Art and Architecture of Cheras

Cheras architecture is known as Dravidian architecture, and their temples are mostly octagonal or rectangular in shape, built with sandstones or granite. Their temples are divided into four sections: vimanam, mandapams, gopurams, and garbhagriha.
The gopurams, an imposing tower over the entrance, were the tallest structures in the villages and towns where they were built.
The temple was more than just a place of worship. It was a place for socialising, education, and celebration, not just of the king’s battle victories, but also of local functions and ceremonies such as marriages.
The temple was also used as a sort of emergency storage facility, and many temples also housed hospitals.
It was a place where art such as music, dance, drama, and handicrafts, was encouraged and flourished.

Some important temples of Cheras are:-

Thiruvanchikulam Shiva Temple

It was built in Kerala-style architecture during the Chera period when Lord Shiva was worshipped by Umadevi.
This temple falls under India’s archaeology, and it is one of the oldest Shiva temples in South India, built in the Thrissur district of Kodungallur.

Bhagavathi Amman Temple

This temple located in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, is also known as Bhadrakali Amman temple and it is one of the 52 Shakthi Peetam temples.
According to legend, Lord Shiva failed to keep his promise to marry her, and as a result, she turned into a demon.
The Navarathri, Kalabhavan, and Vaisakha festivals are all grandly celebrated here.

Mahavishnu Temple

It is located in Thrikkodithanam, Kottayam, Kerala, and represents five ancient shrines connected to Mahabharatham.
Kazhivetti Kallur, a strange form of art, is displayed between the pond and the eastern entrance.
It is kept as a reminder that the king bribed the caretaker and gained access to the temple, where he soon became ill and died.

Literature of Cheras

The Sangam texts are a large body of Tamil works that describe a number of Chera rulers along with Pandya and Chola rulers.
The Pathitrupathu, Akananuru, and Purananuru are the most important literatures of the Cheras.
Silapathikaram was written during their reign, when Tamil poets, Paranar, and Kongar ruled.
Some other literary works of Sangam time which are common for the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas are Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named Silappathikaram and Manimegalai.
Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiyar, is considered the first Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil grammar, it also provides insights into the time’s political and socioeconomic conditions.
Pathinenkilkanakku is a collection of eighteen works on ethics and morals. The most important of these works is Tirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar, a great Tamil poet and philosopher.

Decline of Cheras

Rashtrakutas conquered the Cheras in 805 AD, and ruled over them for a brief period between 855 and 865 AD.
During the reign of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, the Chola Chera war (“Hundred Years War”) began.
By the end of Raja Raja Chola’s reign, the Cholas had annexed the entire southern Travancore south of Kuzhithara from the Cheras.
These prolonged wars had significantly weakened the Chera power and taking advantage of this chaotic opportunity several chiefs of Cheras asserted their independence.
Later, the Cholas consolidated control over a vast area of the Chera kingdom.
Rama Varma Kulasekhara, the newly crowned King, was confronted with an unprecedented and chaotic crisis.
He turned a large portion of his army into suicide squads (dubbed “the Chavers”) and fought heroically.
In the absence of central power at Mahodayapuram, the Later Chera kingdom’s divisions quickly emerged as principalities led by separate chieftains.
The post-Chera period saw the gradual decline of Nambudiri Brahmins and the rise of the Nairs.

Yadavas (12th to 13th Century)

The Yadavas or Seuna dynasty ruled a kingdom spanning from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, comprising present-day Maharashtra, north Karnataka, and parts of Madhya Pradesh. They were initially feudatories of the Western Chalukyas but later on, they declared independence and founded a sovereign kingdom. The Yadava kingdom flourished until the early 14th century, when it was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate. Yadavas reached their peak under the rule of Simhana II. They made significant contributions to cultural activities and during their reign Marathi became the main language of the region.

Yadavas – Background

The earliest historical ruler of the Seuna/Yadava dynasty can be traced back to the mid-9th century but little is known about their early history, their 12th century court poet Hemadri records the names of the family’s early rulers.
The territory of the early Yadava rulers was in present-day Maharashtra, and several scholars have claimed that the dynasty had a “Maratha” origin.
During this time, the Marathi language emerged as the dominant language in the dynasty’s inscriptions. Prior to this, the primary languages of their inscriptions were Kannada and Sanskrit.
Hemadri’s traditional genealogy of the Yadavas traces their descent from Visnu, the Creator and Yadu were his later descendants.
The dynasty’s first historically attested ruler is Dridhaprahara (860-880 AD), who is credited with founding the city of Chandradityapura (modern Chandor). He was a feudatory of Chalukyas.
Bhillama ( 1175-1191 CE) was the first sovereign ruler of the Yadava dynasty in the Deccan region.
Bhillama forced Ballala to retreat around 1187, conquered the former Chalukya capital Kalyani, and declared himself a sovereign ruler.
He then founded the city of Devagiri, which became the new Yadava capital.

Rulers of Yadavas

Bhillama (1173 – 1191 AD)

Bhillama ( 1175-1191 CE) was the first sovereign ruler of India’s Yadava (Seuna) dynasty in the Deccan region.
Initially he ruled as a nominal vassal of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. After the Chalukya power fell, he declared sovereignty around 1187 CE and fought with the Hoysala king Ballala II for control of the former Chalukya territory in present-day Karnataka.
He defeated Ballala in a battle at Soratur around 1189 CE, but Ballala defeated him two years later.
In 1190, he took over the Chalukya capital of Kalyani and established Devagiri (now Daulatabad) as the Yadava dynasty’s capital.
Bhillama was referred to as “Chakravartin Yadava” in the Mutugi inscription from 1189-90 CE (1111 Shaka) records.

Singhana II (1200-1246 AD)

Singhana II (1200-1246 AD) was the most powerful ruler of the Yadavas.
During his reign, the Yadava empire reached its pinnacle. Neither the Hoysalas, nor the Kakatiyas, nor the Paramaras and Calukyas dared to challenge his Deccan dominance.
Sarangadeva, the author of Sangita Ratnakar, worked as an accountant in Singhana II’s court.
Two famous astrologers, Cangadeva (established an astrological college) and Anantadeva (wrote commentaries on Brahmagupta’s Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Varahamihira’s Brhajjataka), flourished in Sinhana’s court.

Raja Ramchandrahbl (1291-1309 AD)

Ramachandra was the Yadava ruler Krishna’s son.
After conducting a coup in the capital Devagiri, he usurped the throne from his cousin Ammana and became the next monarch around 1270 CE.
He enlarged his empire by fighting the Paramaras, Hoysalas, Vaghelas and Kakatiyas, all of whom were Hindus.
He faced a Muslim invasion from the Delhi Sultanate in 1296 AD, and made peace by promising to pay an annual tribute to Alauddin Khalji.
In 1308 AD, Alauddin Khalji dispatched a force to Ramachandra, led by his general Malik Kafur. Kafur’s army overpowered Ramchandra’s army and imprisoned him in Delhi.

Administration of Yadavas

The form of government was a hereditary monarchy.
Yadavas had a strong bureaucracy in place to support the administration.
King used to consult his ministers prior to issuing any land charter.
Although the monarch is the most important member of the political body, ancient political thinkers saw the Ministry or a council of advisers as a significant organ of the state.
The Yadavas appear to have a smaller ministry, with 5 or 7 members at times.
In ministry, Mahapradhana was a powerful minister who was usually in charge of a province or even a district.
Rajaguru was most likely the royal preceptor, counselling the monarch on religious matters.
Lakshmipati was the minister in charge of the treasury.
Mudraprabhu, the officer in charge of seals, Kusumarachanadhyaksha, the superintendent of floral arrangements, the commander of hill forts, and the royal hunter, are among the other royal officers of the court.

Architecture of Yadavas

The Gondeshwar temple is a Hindu temple in Sinnar, Maharashtra, India, that dates from the 11th to 12th centuries.
With the main temple dedicated to Shiva and four auxiliary shrines dedicated to Surya, Vishnu, Parvati, and Ganesha, it has a Panchayatana plan.
The Gondeshwar temple was constructed during the reign of the Yadava dynasty, though no exact dates have been found, and is thought to be from the 11th or 12th centuries.
Devagiri Fort was built during the reign of the Yadavas. It is considered as one of the strongest forts in India.

Literature during Yadavas reign

The Yadavas were the first significant dynasty in India to make Marathi their official language.
Hemadri, a Yadava court minister, strove to formalise Marathi with Sanskrit terminology in order to improve its reputation as a court language.
Saint-poet Dnyaneshwar wrote Dnyaneshwari, a Marathi-language commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
Apart from Marathi, Kannada was also the Yadavas’ court language until the late Seuna period, as evidenced by a number of Kannada inscriptions
During Simhana’s reign, Shrangadeva wrote the Sangita Ratnakara, an influential Sanskrit book on Indian music. It is considered to be the first book on music.
The encyclopaedic Sanskrit work Chaturvarga Chintamani was compiled by Hemadri. He is also supposed to have built many temples in the Hemadapanti style, which is named after him.
He published numerous publications on Vaidhyakshastra (medical science) and promoted bajra cultivation.

Decline of Yadavas

The last prominent ruler was Ramachandra.
After the attacks by Alauddin Khalji, Ramchandra became weak and finally in 1308 AD, Alauddin Khalji launched a force to Ramachandra, led by his general Malik Kafur.
Malik Kafur’s army beat the Yadava prince’s army and carried Ramachandra to Delhi.
Alauddin regarded Ramachandra with respect in Delhi, and he was reinstalled as a vassal in Devagiri.
Simhana III (Shankaradeva) was his son, who was defeated and killed after an unsuccessful rebellion against Alauddin Khalji.
This way the Yadava dynasty ended.

Chapter 12 : Major Dynasties (750 – 1200 AD) of Early Medieval India

Chapter 12 : Major Dynasties (750 – 1200 AD) of Early Medieval India

The period 750–1200 CE in north India can be divided into two phases. Phase I (c. 750–1000 CE) – This period in north India saw the rise of three major empires: the Gurjara Pratiharas in the north, the Palas in the east, and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Phase II (c. 1000–1200 CE) – This period is also known as the Age of Conflict. The tripartite powers were divided into smaller kingdoms. The Gurjara Pratihara empire in north India disintegrated into various Rajput states ruled by various Rajput dynasties such as the Chahamanas (Chauhans), Paramaras of Malwa, Chandellas, and so on.

The Pratiharas (8th to 10th Century)

The Pratiharas, also known as the Gurjara-Pratiharas (8th century CE – 10th century CE), ruled over western and northern India. The fortunes of this dynasty improved under Nagabhata-I (730–760 CE), who successfully defeated Arab invaders. The most well-known king of this dynasty was Bhoja or Mihira Bhoja (c. 836-885 CE). The Pratiharas were best known for their patronage of art, sculpture, and temple construction, as well as their ongoing conflict with contemporary powers such as the Palas of eastern India and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of southern India.

The Pratiharas – Background

The fall of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty based at Kanyakubja (modern-day Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh state) under Harshavardhana (606-647 CE) in 647 CE caused chaos and political instability.
Many kingdoms rose and fell, but the Pratiharas, Palas of eastern India, and Rashtrakutas of southern India eventually came to dominate. The Ayudha dynasty ruled Kanyakubja at the time (c. 9th century CE).
The origins of the Gujarat, particularly the Gurjara-Pratiharas, are still unknown.
The Gujarat are variously viewed as foreign people gradually assimilated into Indian society, as local people who belonged to the Gurjara land (Gurjaradesha or Gurjaratra), or as a tribal group.
The Pratiharas, whose name is derived from the Sanskrit word pratihara (which means “doorkeeper”), are regarded as a tribal group or clan of the Gurjaras.
In the epic Ramayana, Prince Lakshmana worked as a doorkeeper for his elder brother King Rama.
The Pratiharas adopted this title because Lakshmana was considered their ancestor.
Several other Gurjara families began as local officials and eventually established small principalities to the south and east of Jodhpur in modern-day Rajasthan state.
After successfully repelling Arab invaders in the late eighth century CE, the Pratiharas rose to prominence.
Aside from inscriptions, the sculpture and monuments erected during their reign provide important evidence of their times and rule.
Accounts of Arab merchants who visited India during this period include Suleiman (c. 9th century CE), who visited India in the 9th century CE and left behind an account of his travels, and al-Masudi (c. 10th century CE), who visited Gujarat in 915-16 CE.
All of these authors refer to the Pratihara Kingdom as al-Juzr (from the Sanskrit Gurjara) and attest to “the great power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire.”

Important rulers of Pratiharas

Nagabhata I

He was the dynasty’s first significant king, and because of his accomplishments, which included defeating the Arabs, his line came to eclipse other Gurjara-Pratihara families.
He fought Rashtrakutas, but he was defeated.
His nephew Kakustha succeeded him, was followed by his brother Devaraja. These two ruled from around 760 to 775 CE.

Vatsaraja

Vatsaraja (775-800 CE) conquered most of central Rajasthan after defeating the Bhandi or Bhatti clan.
He then tried his hand at Kanyakubja politics, defeating Palas and securing the throne for his Ayudha nominee.
Dhruva Rashtrakuta dealt him a severe blow, capturing the royal insignia that Vatsaraja had captured from the Palas and driving him to seek refuge in the Rajasthan deserts.

Nagabhata II

Vatsaraja’s son Nagabhata II (800-833 CE) attempted to resurrect the dynasty’s fortunes. He conquered the kingdoms of Sindh (now Pakistan) and eastern India, and later defeated the Palas.
His subsequent conquests were over the kings of various parts of Gurjaradesha in western India, including the Arabs.
Nagabhata fought the Rashtrakutas for control of Gujarat and was eventually defeated by Rashtrakuta Govinda III (793-814 CE), losing south Gujarat and Malwa as a result.
After some time, when he was able to regain his strength, he was able to reclaim some of his lost territories.
He also captured Kanyakubja, effectively ending Ayudha rule. This city now became the capital of Pratihara.
His son Ramabhadra (833-836 CE) succeeded him, and his reign saw some territorial recovery.

Mihir Bhoja

He ruled for nearly 50 years as the grandson of Nagabhata II.
Despite being defeated by the Palas, Rashtrakutas, and Kalachuris at first, he was able to gather his forces and launch a counter strike.
With the help of his Chedi and Guhila feudatories, he defeated the Palas and possibly the Rashtrakutas.
He was able to annex many parts of the Pala Empire in eastern India and reclaim territories in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh, greatly expanding his empire.

Mahendrapala I

Mahendrapala I (885-910 CE) expanded on his father Bhoja’s empire and conquered new territory in the east.
He was defeated by the king of Kashmir and ceded some territories in Punjab to him.
Following his death, a civil war erupted between his son Mahipala and his half-brother Bhoja II.

Mahipala I

Mahipala I (c. 912-944 CE) was able to secure the throne but was defeated by the Rashtrakutas, allowing the Palas to exploit the situation and retake some of their former territories from the Pratiharas.
Mahipala attempted to recover from these losses and did reclaim some lost lands, but his conquest plans were thwarted once more by the Rashtrakutas in later years.
Mahendrapala II (c. 944-948 CE) and his successors made no significant contributions during their reigns. These kings ruled more like petty kings, with little involvement in daily affairs.

Rajyapala

The Rashtrakuta king Krishna III defeated this Pratihara ruler.
Rajyapala reigned from 960-1018 CE.
Mahmud Ghazni raided Kannauj, forcing Rajyapala to flee the battlefield. Vindhyadhar Chandela assassinated him.

Yashpala

He was the Pratihara dynasty’s final ruler.
He reigned from 1024-1036 CE.
Kannauj was conquered by the Gandhavalas by 1090 CE.

Wars with Palas and Rashtrakutas

The Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom’s expansion involved constant conflicts with other contemporary powers such as the Palas and the Rashtrakutas, which became known as the “tripartite struggle”.
Control of Kanyakubja was important because “since the days of Harsha, Kanauj was considered the symbol of sovereignty of north India, control of Kanauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture.”
The Ayudhas who ruled Kanyakubja were thought to be weak, so the Palas intervened in their politics, backing one candidate for the throne and treating the ‘king’ there as a feudatory.
The Pratiharas, the Palas’ enemies, now had an excuse to attack Kanyakubja (also known as Mahodaya at the time) and support their own candidate for kingship, as well as fight the Palas on their behalf, as Vatsaraja did.
The Rashtrakutas proved more than a match for the Pratiharas, who thwarted their attempts to control the upper Gangetic valley and Malwa.
The rivalry over Malwa and Gujarat began “as early as the middle of the eighth century AD, when the Rashtrakuta and Gurjara-Pratihara empires were both just founded”.
They were defeated by the Rashtrakuta emperors Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 CE) and Govinda III (793-814 CE). Al-Masudi “refers to the Rashtrakuta-Pratihara enmity that was the epoch’s defining feature.”
Dhruva’s victory over Vatsaraja allowed the Palas to reassert their power and install their own candidate on the Kanyakubja throne.
Despite Rashtrakuta defeats, Nagabhata II and later Bhoja rebuilt their empire, with Kanyakubja becoming and remaining the Pratihara capital. Long into the 10th century CE, the Rashtrakutas continued to engage and defeat successive Pratihara kings.
Geographical considerations also played a role in the hostilities that erupted between these disparate kingdoms.
Control over the areas linked by the Ganges river, “the highway of traffic linking up the entire country from Bengal to mid-India,” was critical for any kingdom seeking greater prosperity in terms of commerce and economy.
Similarly, the Pratiharas retained control of Gujarat due to the need to control south-western trade routes and seaborne commerce.
The Rashtrakutas couldn’t afford to stay in the north for long because it was so far away from their base areas in the south.
Much of their campaigns were raids, carried out for the sake of prestige, obtaining booty, garnering imperial glory, and establishing their own pre-eminence over the dominant dynasties in India.

Religion of Pratiharas

It is worth noting that this was the age of the advancement of the Brahmanical religion.
The important sects of Brahmanism where the Brahmin enjoyed first class were Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta, and Surya. This was the age of the advancement of the Brahmanical religion.
The construction of temples and statues was considered a sacred duty by the followers of these sects. The temples were supported by donations from kings and other wealthy individuals.
Shaivas worshipped Siva under various names such as Indra, Sankar, Pashupati, Yoga swami, Shambhu, and so on.
Siva was worshiped by kings like Vatsaraja, Mahendrapala, and Trilochanapala.

Administration of Pratiharas

In terms of administration, much of the Gupta Empire’s (3rd century CE – 6th century CE) and Harshavardhana’s ideas and practices were retained. The king was supreme and was assisted by a number of ministers and officials.
Many minor kings and dynasties ruled as vassals of the king and were expected to be loyal, pay a fixed tribute to the king, form matrimonial alliances with the royal family, and supply troops when needed.
Some areas were administered directly by the center and were divided into provinces (bhukti) and districts (mandala or vishaya).
They were governed by a governor (uparika) and a district head (vishayapati), who were tasked with collecting land revenue and maintaining law and order with the assistance of army units stationed in their respective areas.
The village, as in the past, remained the basic unit of administration, with the headman and other officials paid through land grants.
However, many vassals, such as the Paramaras and Chandellas of modern-day Bundelkhand, aspired to independence and frequently fought against the king (lying in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh).

Literary Work of Pratiharas

Despite constant warfare, the Pratiharas were able to provide stability to their subjects while also patronizing the arts and literature.
According to Al-Masudi, Juzr had 18,000,000 villages, cities, and towns and was about 2000 km long and 2000 km wide.
Rajashekhara, a poet who collaborated with Mahendrapala and Mahipala, left a legacy of notable works.
Many Hindu temples and buildings were constructed, many of which still stand today.
“From the two centuries of Gurjara-Pratihara rule until 1019 AD, Kanauj became one of the most important centres of art, culture, and commerce in the Indian subcontinent.”
The loss of Gujarat, as well as the resulting loss of overseas trade, particularly to Western Asia, had an impact on economic conditions.
In the Ganga valley, billon coins, or coins with a high percentage of base metal content, were issued.

Art and Architecture of Pratiharas

The Gurjara-Pratihara rulers were avid supporters of the arts, architecture, and literature. Mihir Bhoj was the dynasty’s most notable ruler.
Viswaroopa form of Vishnu and the Marriage of Siva and Parvati from Kannauj are two notable sculptures from this period.
Beautifully carved panels can also be found on the walls of the temples at Osian, Abhaneri, and Kotah.
The extraordinary Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior fort is the oldest large-scale Pratihara work still standing.
The Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior is dedicated to a Shakti cult and consists of an elevated rectangular mula prasada, a double oblong shikhara, and a closed portico.

The decline of the Pratiharas

Pratiharas’ military power declined after Bhoja, and they suffered defeat after defeat under successive kings.
When Indra III (915-928 CE) defeated Mahipala and completely devastated Kanyakubja in the early 10th century CE, and when Krishna III (939-967 CE) invaded again in 963 CE, the Rashtrakutas dealt severe blows.
The Rajput feudatories of the Pratiharas posed a further threat, as “the descendants of Mihira Bhoja had little of Gurjaradesha left in their hands, for each of the feudatories was seeking greater power for himself at the expense of his suzerain.”
Due to the political fabric of India at the time, nearly every king, when conquered, would accept to be a vassal of the conqueror, but would constantly strive for independence and go for it at the slightest opportunity.
The Pratiharas were no different. Because of the central power’s weakness and attacks on the capital, their feudatories and provincial governors became assertive and eager to declare independence.
As a result, the empire disintegrated and was reduced to a kingdom encompassing only the Kanyakubja region.
The Pratihara kingdom remained subdued until the early 11th century CE, when it was finally conquered by the Ghaznavid Turks.
Their rule was only temporary, and the area was eventually taken over by Indian rulers, most notably the Gahadavala Dynasty (c. 1080-1194 CE).

The Palas (8th to 11th Century)

Pala empire was founded by Gopala in 750 CE, and they controlled Bengal and Bihar for nearly 400 years, from the eighth to the twelfth centuries. Rulers of this dynasty had ‘Pala’ in their name, which means ‘protector’ i.e. it was called the Pala dynasty. In the Indian subcontinent, this empire was one of the most powerful Buddhist imperial powers. The Palas were best known for their patronage of art, sculpture, painting and university construction, as well as their ongoing conflict with contemporary powers such as the Pratiharas of western India and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of southern India.

Origin of Pala Empire

Gopala established the Pala Empire in the eighth century.
After Harshvardhana’s death, many kingdoms rose to dominance in Northern and Eastern India in the 7th century.
The ruler of Gauda Kingdom i.e. Shashanka was the contemporary of King Harshavardhana and between 590 and 625 CE, he controlled the Bengal area.
Soon after the death of Gauda King Shashanka, lawlessness erupted in the country’s northern and eastern parts, allowing the Palas to seize control and establish the Pala Empire.
The Pala Empire began its authority in the states of Bihar and Bengal, but the borders of the Pala dynasty’s ruled provinces changed frequently due to the kingdom’s various collapses and revivals.
The Bengal region was in a state of revolt after the fall of the Shashanka’s empire, and there was no central authority to rule the state, so Gopala ascended the throne as the first emperor.
For nearly four centuries, the Palas dynasty ruled over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Orissa and Assam, with numerous ups and downs.
Sulaiman, an Arab trader, attests to their influence. Sulaiman described the Pala empire as Ruhma (or Dharma), short for Dharmapala.
The Pala monarchs were at war with their neighbours, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, although his armies outnumbered his opponents.
‘It was customary for the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000 elephants,’ Sulaiman added.
In Bengal’s history, the Pala Empire is regarded as the ‘Golden Age.’

Major Rulers of Pala Empire

Gopala (750–770 AD)

He was the founder of the Pala dynasty and the first emperor of the dynasty. He was the son of a warrior named Vapaata.
In a revolution to end the Matsyanyaya, the people elected Gopala as their monarch.
The Pala dynasty had nearly conquered most of Bihar and Bengal at the time of Gopala’s death.

Matsyanyaya After Sasanka’s death(ruler of Bengal), there was tremendous turmoil and chaos in Bengal. The term’ matsyanyaya’ was used to describe this near-anarchy that reigned in Bengal. Matsya Nyaya (fish justice) is a Sanskrit word that refers to the nature of fishes in which the larger fishes prey on the lesser ones. Gopala emerged as the king of Bengal and ended the Matsyanyaya.

Dharmapala (770–810 AD)

In around 770 AD, Dharmapala succeeded Gopala as monarch. He embarks on a plan to expand his empire.
During his reign, a tripartite struggle occurred between the Pala, Prathihara, and Rashtrakuta dynasties for control of Kanauj.
He defeated Kanauj’s king Indrayudha and set his nominee Chakrayudha on the throne.
At Kannauj, Dharmapala staged a large darbar, which was attended by a number of rulers. He was unable to maintain his post.
Dhruva, a Rashtrakuta king, defeated Dharmapala in a fight in Monghyr (Bihar) and Dharmapala reign came to an end in 810 CE.

Devapala (810–850 AD)

Devapala, Dharmapala’s son, succeeded him as monarch. He was the most powerful Pala king.
Assam and Utkala (Orissa) were two of the states he conquered.
He had defeated the ruler of the Rashtrakuta empire, Amoghavarsha.
He ruled till 850 CE.
The Pala dynasty began to fall steadily once Devapala’s reign ended.
Though his successors, Mahendrapala and Shurapala, kept the Pala kingdom together, the following weak kings of the Pala empire, such as Narayanapala and Vigrahapala II, laid the way for the Pala empire’s downfall.

Mahipala I

In 988 CE, Mahipala I, the Pala dynasty’s emperor, ascended to the throne.
He rebuilt the Pala empire’s strength. He reclaimed Bengal’s northern and western regions, north and south Bihar.
However, following his rule, the Pala kingdom began to fall once more.
And finally, the Hindu Sena dynasty ruler ‘Vijayasena’ toppled the Pala Empire in the 12th century.

Rampala

He was the last powerful Pala king.
During the reign of his son Kumarapala, the kingdom fell apart.
He was the Pala dynasty’s fifteenth ruler.
Sandhyakar Nandi, his court poet, wrote the novel Ramacharitam in Sanskrit with two meanings.

Administration of Pala Empire

The Pala dynasty created its administration model based on the Gupta empire’s administrative practices.
The Pala Dynasty had a monarchical administrative structure. All power was concentrated in the hands of the king or monarch.
Parameshwar, Paramvattaraka, or Maharajadhiraja were offered to the Pala rulers.
In the Pala dynasty, the throne was passed down through generations.
The King was aided by a group of ministers who were hereditary and nominated by the King from prominent families.
Some provinces in the Pala empire were under the direct rule of the King, while others were under the control of Vassal chiefs.
The regions governed by the Vassal chiefs were granted autonomy. They provided the King with fixed contributions and troops.
The Pala empire’s lands that were managed directly were divided into many provinces known as Bhukti and governed by officials known as Uparika. They collected the levy and preserved the province’s law and order.
Apart from that, Pala monarchs are also thought to have been astute diplomats, forming alliances with many cultures in order to encourage new trade routes.
They maintained strong cultural and trading ties with the Middle East and Southeast Asia.

Religion of Palas

Buddhism and Hinduism were the dominant religions throughout the Pala Dynasty.
They were largely Buddhists and practiced Mahayana Buddhism.
After King Harsha Vardhana’s reign, Buddhism was on the verge of extinction. However, the arrival of the Palas reignited interest in Buddhism across the Indian subcontinent.
Shaivism and Vaishnavism were also patronized by them. The King made land concessions to brahmanas and priests.
Palas built great monasteries throughout their reign.
One of the major viharas built by the Pala emperors is Somapura Mahavihara (now in Bangladesh).
The spread of Mahayana Buddhism occurred during the Palas in nations such as Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Indonesia.
During the Pala dynasty in Bengal, Bihar, and Assam, a number of temples were built. For example, in Assam, they built the Hayagriva avatar temple.
Many coins discovered during their period represented Shiva worship, Vishnu worship, and Saraswati worship.
Therefore, the long Pala period and the chosen religion during the Pala Dynasty resulted in a combination of Hindu and Buddhist culture.

Palas as Patrons of Education

Palas were not merely conquerors; they were also religious patrons who had made significant investments in education.
Dharmapala, the emperor, renovated the Nalanda university, built the Vikramasila university and Somapura Mahavihara, all of them were Buddhist academic centres.
Nalanda university became well-known around the world during Pala’s reign.
Nalanda had about 10,000 students and teachers during this time period, who came from all throughout India, as well as Central Asia, China, Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka.
It was one of the largest educational institutions in the world at the time and it provided education in a variety of subjects.
Dharmapala gave the royal income from two hundred nearby villages to cover Nalanda University’s expenses.
Vikramasila university competed directly with Nalanda University.
It had over 100 faculty and over 1000 students listed.
Vikramasila university was well-known for providing specialist Tantra training (Tantrism).
Atia Dipankara, a creator of Tibetan Buddhism’s Sharma traditions, was one of the university’s most well-known graduates.
This university thrived for 400 years until it was destroyed by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji’s soldiers in the year 1200.
Somapura Mahavihara (now in Bangladesh) university was founded by Dharmapala in Bengal in the late eighth century, and it flourished for 400 years until the 12th century.
It was a prominent learning centre for Bauddha Dharma (Buddhism), Jina Dharma (Jainism), and Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism).
This university had an impact on Buddhist architecture as far as Cambodia.
It is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Palas Architecture

Several mahaviharas, stupas, chaityas, temples, and forts were built by Palas.
The majority of the architecture was religious, with Buddhist art dominating the first two hundred years and Hindu art dominating the following two hundred.
Nalanda, Vikramashila, Somapura, Traikutaka, Devikota, Pandita, and Jagaddala vihara are famous among the mahaviharas.
At these centres, which also featured workshops for the casting of bronze figures, a large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to Buddhist subjects were produced.
Dharmapala’s construction of the Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur (Bangladesh), is one of the largest Buddhist viharas in India, and its architectural layout has impacted the architecture of countries such as Myanmar and Indonesia.
Palas constructed temples also which are noted for displaying the Vanga style.
At Kashi, Mahipala constructed hundreds of temples and buildings.
At Gaya, there is a Vishnupada temple with a hemispherical mandap that looks like an umbrella.

Palas Paintings

The Pala School of Painting is one of India’s earliest examples of miniature painting.
They are considered as the founder of the Miniature form of painting in India.
Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila, and Somarupa Buddhist monasteries (mahaviharas) were significant centres of Palas school of painting.
The artworks are in the shape of a vast number of palm-leaf manuscripts depicting Buddhist themes.
Pala style is naturalistic, evoking the ideal shapes of contemporary bronze and stone sculpture while also evoking a sense of Ajanta’s classical art.
The manuscript of the Astasahasrika-Prajnaparamita(The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand) is the best example.

Palas Sculpture

Under the patronage of Pala monarchs, the Gupta sculptural tradition reached unprecedented heights.
The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as an unique period of Indian art and the Bengal sculptors achieved new heights and are known for their aesthetic genius.
During the Pala period, a new type of stone and bronze sculpture evolved and they were known for their bronze casting.
Under the Palas, the art absorbed many local traits and lasted until the end of the 12th century.
Stone and copper statues were erected in huge numbers, mostly in monastery places such as Nalanda, Bodh Gaya, and others.
The majority of the sculptures were inspired by Buddhism. Aside from Buddha, Hindu gods and goddesses such as Surya, Vishnu, Ganesh, and others were sculpted.
In most cases, only the frontal aspects of the body are depicted in the sculptures.
Slim and graceful forms, as well as exquisite jewellery, were hallmarks of the Palas style.

Conclusion

The Palas ruled over East India for nearly 400 years, from the eighth to the twelfth centuries, and they were ardent supporters of Mahayana Buddhism. The Pala monarchs were at war with their neighbors, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. In Bengal’s history, the Pala Empire is regarded as the ‘Golden Age.’ This empire is known for political stability, economic growth and art & architecture development.

The Senas (11th to 12th Century)

The Sena Dynasty ruled Bengal from approximately 1097 to 1225 CE. The Sena dynasty ruled the majority of the Indian subcontinent’s northeast. Previously, the Pala dynasty ruled over both Bihar and Bengal. The Sena rulers were devout Hindus, as opposed to the Palas, who were Buddhists. They originated in the south Indian region of Karnataka, according to the Deopara inscription. The inscription mentions Samantha Sen, one of the southern founders, whose successor was Hemanta Sena, the first of the family to be given royal epithets in the family records, and who seized power from the Palas and styled himself king in around 1095 CE. His successor, Vijaya Sena, was instrumental in laying the groundwork for the dynasty.

The Senas – Features

During the 11th and 12th centuries, Senas ruled from Bengal.
The Sena Dynasty traces its origins to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
Vijayasena deposed Madanapala (the last ruler of the Pala dynasty) and established the Sena dynasty. He was the genuine founder of the Sena kingdom.
His son, Ballala Sena (1160-1178), instituted the social reforms known as Kulinism in Bengal.
Lakshamanasena succeeded Ballal Sena. This dynasty’s greatest ruler was Lakshmana Sena.
He became weak near the end of his reign. Within his kingdom, there were signs of disintegration.
Muhammad Bhaktiyar Khalji dealt the Sena kingdom its final blow (1204 AD).

Important Rulers of Senas

Vijaya Sena (1095-1158 CE)

Founder of the Sena dynasty, who ruled over Bengal for over 60 years and brought peace and prosperity.
It is thought that he took advantage of the Samantachakra revolt in the Varendra region during Mahipala II’s reign and gradually consolidated his position in western Bengal.
During Madanapala’s reign, he eventually became self-sufficient.
He defeated Bhojavarman and took control of Vanga.
Vijaya Sena was divided into two capitals: Vijaypura and Vikrampura.
The famous poet Sriharsha wrote Vijay Prasasti (Eulogy of Vijay) in memory of Vijaya Sena. On the copper plate in Barrackpore, he is referred to as Maharajadhiraja.
The Sena kings, particularly Vijaya Sena, is lauded in the Deopara Prasasti stone inscription.

Ballal Sena (1158-1179 CE)

Ballal Sena’s kingdom was divided into five provinces: Banga, Barendra, Bagri (possibly a portion of lower Bengal), Mithila, and Rar. He also made Nabadwip the capital.
Ballal Sena is credited with reviving orthodox Hindu practices in Bengal, particularly with the establishment of the reactionary tradition of Kulinism (Hindu caste and marriage rules).
His wife Ramadevi was the princess of the western Chalukyan empire, demonstrating the friendly relations between the two kingdoms.
Adbhutsagara and Danasagara are two of his works.

Lakshmana Sena (1178-1207 CE)

The Sena dynasty reached its apex under the capable leadership of Lakshmana Sena.
His kingdom included Odisha, Bihar, Assam, and possibly Varanasi as well. He also defeated Jayachandra, ruler of the Gahadavala dynasty.
Seven copper plate inscriptions from his reign mention him as a great military leader and patron of learning.
These inscriptions also mention his victories over the kings of Kamrupa, Gaur, Kalinga, and Kashi. To commemorate his achievements, he built pillars in Allahabad, Benares, and Puri.
He was Bengal’s first ruler who expanded his power beyond Benares. Gaya’s ruler is mentioned in some inscriptions.
He was given the titles Ariraja-Madana-Sankara, as well as Gaureswara and Paramvaishnava.
In contrast to Ballal Sena and Vijaya Sena, who were Shaivas, the title Paramvaishnava indicates that he was a devout Vaishnav. His official proclamations began with a prayer to Narayana.
Poets such as Jayadeva (the famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and author of Geeta Govinda), Umapati Dhar, Dhoyi, and others graced his court.
He was a learned man who finished the work of Adbhut Sagara that his father Ballal Sena had begun.
However, during his final years in power, the Sena dynasty weakened and began to disintegrate.

Religion of Senas

The Senas’ rule in Bengal is commonly associated with the emergence of orthodox Hinduism in a Hindu-Buddhist society that had long enjoyed peaceful coexistence of the two religions, resulting in an atmosphere of amalgamation of the two.
The onslaught on Buddhists in Bengal is thought to have begun during this time period, resulting in large-scale Buddhist migration to neighbouring countries.
After Sena’s reign, Buddhism declined in India.
Bhaktiyar Khalji pillaged many Buddhist universities. (Nalanda, Odantapuri, and Vikramshila).

Administration of Senas

The Pala system of administration was maintained by the Senas. Even under the Senas, Bhuktis, Vishayas, Mandals, and so on remained administrative divisions.
Patakas and Chaturakas are the names of the smallest administrative divisions that appear frequently in Sena inscriptions and literature.
Among the royal officers, the names Bhuktipati, Mandalpati, and Vishayapati appear frequently.
The Palas Prime Minister was now referred to as Mahamantri. The Sena kings used to call themselves Aswapati, Narapati, Rajaprayadhapati, and so on.
Under the Senas, the Sandhivigrahika of the Palas was renamed Mahasandhivigrahika.
Apart from these, the Sena kings appointed Mahamudradhkrita and Mahasarbadhkrita as new officers.
Similarly, the highest judge was known as Mahadharmadhyakshya. Military officers were also given new names under the Senas.

Literary Works of Senas

The Sena rulers were also avid supporters of literature. Bengali experienced significant growth during the Pala and Sena dynasties.
The Sena period also saw the rise of Sanskrit literature.
Pancharatnas were patronized by Lakshmanasena in his court.
- Govardhana
- Jayadeva
- Sarana
- Umapathi
- Dhoyi
Jayadeva is the author of the romantic devotional songs known as Gita Govindam was his most famous book.
The Radha Krishna cult was founded by Jayadeva. Pavandutam was written by Dhoyi.
Ballal Sena was an author, according to a Sena epigraph. In 1168, he published Danasagara. And in 1169, he began but did not complete Adbhutasagara.

Art and Architecture of Senas

The architectural style of the Sena dynasty is a continuation of the Pala style of architecture. There is no discernible change in architectural form.
The Sena dynasty is well-known for erecting Hindu temples and monasteries, such as the renowned Dhakeshwari Temple in what is now Dhaka, Bangladesh.
In Kashmir, the dynasty is also thought to have built the Sankara Gaureshwara temple.

Decline of Senas

Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, one of Mohammad Ghori’s generals, attacked Nabadwip and invaded Bihar and Bengal, annexing them to their Islamic kingdom at the beginning of the 13th century (c. 1203 – 1204 CE).
He conquered northwest Bengal, leaving eastern Bengal under Sena control.
However, by the middle of the 13th century, the Deva dynasty had completely overthrown the Sena, and with it, the Sena’s rule declined completely.

Conclusion

For just over a century, the Sena Dynasty ruled Bengal. The dynasty’s emergence supplanted the Palas in Bengal near the end of the 11th century AD. In 1203 AD, Bakhtiyar Khalji, the military general of the Ghurid dynasty, invaded Bengal and defeated the Lakshmana Sena. The Deva Kingdom ruled over Eastern Bengal after the collapse of the Sena Dynasty.

The Rajaputas (647 – 1200 AD)

With the downfall of Harsha, Rajput dominance began in the 7th century and continued till the 12th century. The name Rajaputas was derived from the word “Rajputra” meaning “ruler’s son.” Their bravery, loyalty, and royal status were adored. They were the battle-hardened warriors who managed the governing functions. They belonged to a patrilineal clan of western, central, and northern India and claimed to be descendants of North India’s ruling military aristocracy.

Rajputs – Background

There are several theories as to how Rajputs came to be. They were thought to be the offspring of foreign invaders and Indian Kshatriyas.
The invaders were Indianized and assimilated into Indian society. Many Rajput legends support this theory.
As a result, it is possible to say that various elements contributed to the formation of the Rajput clan.
The Rajputs are divided into 36 clans and each clan belongs to one of three basic lineages (vanshas). These are Suryavansh, Chandravanshi and Agnivanshi.
Suryavanshi Rajput clan is related to Surya, the Hindu Sun God. It is known as the Solar Dynasty in English.
Chandravanshi Rajput clan to be a descendant of Chandra (the moon). In English, the Chandravanshi lineage is known as the Lunar Dynasty.
Agnivanshi Rajputs assert that they are descendants of Agni, the Hindu god of fire.
Each of these Vanshas or lineages is broken into multiple clans or kula, each of which claims direct patrilineage from a remote but common male ancestor who allegedly belonged to that Vansha.

Geographical Area under Different Rajput Clans

Major Clans of Rajputs

Chauhans of Delhi-Ajmer (7th Century – 1192)

The Chauhan dynasty flourished from the eighth to the twelfth century AD.
Delhi, Ajmer, and Ranthambhor were all under the control of the Chauhans.
They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest of Rajputana, and at Kota in the east.
The Pratiharas, Paramaras, and Chalukyas were the other three important Rajput dynasties of that time.
Prithviraj III is known as the Chauhan king of Delhi who repelled the Muslim onslaught in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
The following year, Prithviraj was beaten in a second battle at Tarain.

Chandellas of Bundelkhand (831-1202 AD)

Chandellas ruled over central India for approximately 500 years between the 9th and the 13th centuries.
As they dominated most of Bundelkhand, they were also known as the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (now called Bundelkhand).
Chandellas descended from the Gurjar, Huna, and central Asian tribes who crossed the northwest frontier and settled in this territory after fighting battles.
They belong to the Chandravanshi lineage of Rajputs.

Rathors of Kannauj (1090-1194 AD)

The Rathors of Kanauj or Gahawars ruled over Kanauj for more than a century (1090 -1194 CE).
They ruled over the regions of Banaras, Ayodhya, and Kanauj.
During the time of Govinchandra, Rathors of this dynasty reached at the peak of power.
He ruled for a long time (1112–1155) and was successful in restoring the Kanauj kingdom’s splendour.
Jaichanda was the last great ruler of this dynasty and killed by Muhammad of Ghori after that Rathors of Kanauj fell down.

Paramaras of Malwa (790-1150 AD)

Paramaras were successors of the Rashtrakutas, who controlled Malwa from the early ninth century with their capital at Dhar.
Upendra or Krishnaraja was the founder of the Paramara dynasty.
There were other branches of Paramaras ruling in Rajputana, including Mount Abu, Bhinmal, and others, but the Paramaras of Malwa (Dhar) were the most powerful of all.
Their capital was originally in Ujjain, but it was eventually moved to Dhara (both Ujjain and Dhara are in Madhya Pradesh).
The last known Paramara king, Mahalakadeva, was defeated and killed by the forces of Delhi’s Alauddin Khalji in 1305 CE.

Sisodias of Mewar (8th Century – 1930 AD)

The Sisodia of Mewar, popularly known as the “House of Mewar,” was one of the many Rajput clans who ruled the Kingdom of Mewar, afterwards known as the Udaipur State during the British Raj.
After defeating the Tughluq sultans of Delhi, Hammir Singh, a descendant of this Guhila branch dynasty, restored the Kingdom of Mewar.
Famous rulers of this dynasty are Maharana Kumbha (1433-1468), Maharana Sanga (1509-1528), Maharana Pratap Singh (1540- 1597), Amar Singh I (1597-1620).

Senas (1097- 1225 AD)

During the 11th and 12th centuries, Senas ruled from Bengal.
The Sena Dynasty traces its origins to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
Vijayasena deposed Madanapala (the last ruler of the Pala dynasty) and established the Sena dynasty. He was the genuine founder of the Sena kingdom.
His son, Ballala Sena (1160-1178), instituted the social reforms known as Kulinism in Bengal.
Lakshamanasena succeeded Ballal Sena. This dynasty’s greatest ruler was Lakshmana Sena.
He became weak near the end of his reign. Within his kingdom, there were signs of disintegration.
Muhammad Bhaktiyar Khalji dealt the Sena kingdom its final blow (1204 AD).

Pratihara of Kannauj (730-1036 AD)

The Paramaras are Agnivanshi Rajputs who lived near the Solankis.
They began as Rashtrakuta feudatories and rose to power in the 10th century.
They dominated Malwa and the region near the present-day Gujarat-Rajasthan border.
This dynasty produced Bhoja, the legendary Malwa monarch.
Due to battle with the Solankis in the 12th century, the Paramaras lost power and surrendered to a Delhi sultanate attack in 1305.

The Rashtrakutas of Manyakhera (753-982 CE)

They were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami and claimed genealogy from Satyaki (the Yadava monarch of Mahabharata).
The kingdom was founded by Dantidurg (752–756), who established his capital at Malkhand/Malkhet (Gulbarga district, Karnataka).
Govinda III (793-814) and Amoghvarsha were the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers (814-878).
Amoghvarsha ruled for 64 years, yet he preferred religion and literature over battle because of his nature.
He was an author himself, having written Kavirajamarga, the first Kannada book on poetry.
One of the Rashtrakuta kings Krishna I erected the magnificent rock-cut Shiva temple at Ellora.

Administration of Rajputs

The Rajput states’ administration was based on a caste system.
Only those from the upper caste were allowed to work in the administration, even the king was a member of this caste.
In the early phase, if the king behaved against the interests of that estate or caste-group, the leaders may remove him from power and replace him with someone from another caste-group.
Later on, the king became the state’s supreme head and controlled the whole executive, judicial, and military government.
The ministerial council served as a consulting forum on all major polity issues.
Ministerial positions were almost always hereditary and officials became increasingly powerful as a result of the combination of hereditary and feudal positions.

Religion of Rajputs

The majority of Rajputs were Hindus while some of the dynasties also followed Islam and Sikhism.
Many Rajput clans worship Karni Mata as a family deity and link her to their community’s existence or survival in difficult times.
Lord Shiva and Goddess Durga are also famous deities among Hindu Rajputs.
During the medieval period in India, few Rajputs switched from Hinduism to Islam while keeping Hindu surnames such as Rana and Chauhan and also keeping many of their Hindu rituals.
During the Muslim invasion, the Rajputs were the primary defenders of Hindu religion and culture.

Art and Architecture of Rajputs

Rajput architecture is notable for the many Rajput rulers’ forts and palaces.
Rajput Architecture encompasses a wide range of structures that can be broadly classified as either secular or religious.
The scales of the secular structures vary. Temples, forts, stepwells, gardens, and palaces are examples.
Due to the Islamic invasions, the forts were specially built for defence and military purposes.
Mughal architecture had a significant impact on indigenous Rajput art and architecture.
Rajput architecture includes city or town planning as well. Several rulers built cities, and the planning was meticulous.
The Rajputs constructed the Rathas of Mahabalipuram, the Kailash temple at Ellora, and the Elephanta engravements between 600 and 900 AD.

Literary Works of Rajputs

During the Rajput period, many poems were produced. Gitagovinda by Jayadeva, Keerthanarjuneeya by Bharavi, Ravanavada by Bharthruhari, and Kavya Meemamse by Mahendrapala were authored.
Important dramas were composed, including Rajashekara’s Bala Ramayana, Bhavabhuti’s Mahaveeracharitha and Uthararamacharitha.
Kalhana’s Rajatharangini, Jayanika’s Prithiviraja Vijaya, and Hemachandra’s kumarapla charitha are among the Rajputs’ other noteworthy works.
Notable biographies include Chand Bardahi’s Prithiviraja Raso and Balalla’s Bhoja Prabandha.
Rajashekhara, a poet who worked during Rajput’s clan Pala, left a significant body of work.
Sandhakar Nandi (1084 – 1155 AD), Pala’s court poet, wrote “Ramacharita”.
Both King Munja and King Bhoja were poets who wrote numerous works of literature.

Decline of Rajputs

Rajputs are known for their bravery and loyalty. They reigned supreme from the sixth to the twelfth centuries and were dethroned by Sultanate.
Rajputs did not believe in central authority and were frequently at odds with one another.
The constant feud among themselves, lack of unity, old military practices, and weak espionage system are some of the reasons for their decline.
That’s why Rajputs, who were brave fighters and capable warriors, were defeated by a small group of Muslim foreign invaders.
Major political reasons for the decline were that they fought for selfish reasons and the honour of their own families, with no regard for country or nation.
They ruled for the sake of their own pride and a sense of mutual enmity.
As a result, lack of unity was one of the first major reasons for the demise of Rajputs.

Pallavas (275 – 897 CE)

The Pallava Dynasty was located in the South Indian subcontinent. The span of Pallavas’s reign was from 275 CE to 897 C.E. They were the most influential rulers of South India and contributed enormously in the fields of religion, philosophy, art, coins and architecture. Pallavas were at their peak during the reign of Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I. Throughout their rule in Tondaimandalam, they were in constant conflict with both Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil kingdom of Cholas and Pandyas in the south. They are most remembered for their shore temple architecture.

Political History of Pallava Dynasty

The Pallavas’ origins are shrouded in mystery. Historians have proposed a number of theories.
According to some historians, they are a branch of the Parthian people (an Iranian tribe) who gradually migrated to South India.
Some claim they are an indigenous dynasty that arose in the Southern region and was a mash-up of various tribes.
Some experts believe they are of Naga origin and first settled near Madras in the Tondaimandalam region.
Another theory holds that they are the offspring of a Chola prince and a Naga princess from Manipallavam (Sri Lanka).
Others believe that the Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas.
The first Pallava kings ruled in the early fourth century AD.
By the 7th century AD, three kingdoms vied for supremacy in southern India: the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of Madurai, and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.

Extent of the Pallava Dynasty

Kanchipuram was the Pallava capital.
At the height of their power, their territories stretched from northern Andhra Pradesh to River Kaveri in the south.
The Pallavas’ authority reduced the Cholas to a marginal state in the seventh century.
The Pallava king Narasimhavarman occupied Vatapi (Badami) after defeating the Chalukyas.
The Pandyas, Chalukyas, and Pallavas all worked together to crush the Kalabhra uprising.
The Kalabhras were protesting against the Brahmanic rulers of the three dynasties’ numerous land grants (Brahamadeya) to Brahmanas.

Rulers of Pallava Empire

Sivaskanda Varman (4th Century AD)
- He was the most powerful of the early rulers. Ruled at the start of the fourth century AD.
- In 283 CE, Sivaskandavarman of Kanchi, a Pallava king who ruled from 275 to 300 CE, issued the charter.
- Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices were performed by him.
Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (575-600 AD)
- Simhavishnu was the line’s first ruler. Simhavishnu defeated the Kalabhras, laying the groundwork for the “Age of the Imperial Pallavas.”
- He also defeated the Chola, Pandya, and Chera kingdoms’ rulers.
- He ruled over the entire region between the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers. He was a Vishnu worshipper with the title Avanishimha (lion of the earth).
- According to literary tradition, the great poet Bharavi paid him a visit at his court.
Mahendravarman (600-630 AD)
- Mahendravarman I, Simhavishnu’s son, succeeded him. He was a multi-talented genius. He was a soldier and statesman, as well as a religious reformer, architect, poet, and musician.
- His titles included Mattavilasa, Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta, Gundabhara, and Lalitankura. During this time, the long-running Pallava-Chalukya conflict began.
- Pulakesin II defeated Mahendravarman I near Kanchi in a battle known as Pullalur.
- Pulakesin II was almost at the Pallava capital, but Mahendravarman bought peace by ceding their Northern provinces to Pulakesin II.
Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD)
- Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas, elevating the dynasty’s power and prestige to incredible heights. He was known as Mahamalla or Mamalla, which means “great wrestler.”
- His father started the Pallava-Chalukya conflict, which he successfully continued. He wished to avenge his father’s defeat at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II.
- In three battles, including one in Manimangalam near Kanchi in 642 CE, he defeated Pulakesin II.
- Pulakesin II died, and Narasimhavarman took the title Vatapikonda in his place (the conqueror of Vatapi).

Major Literary Works of Pallava Dynasty

The Pallavas were great supporters of education. Kanchi, their capital, was an ancient centre of learning. Kanchi’s Ghatika was well-known, attracting students from all over India and abroad.
Mayurasarman, the founder of the Kadamba dynasty, studied Vedas in Kanchi. Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer, came to Kanchi to study.
Kanchi was the home of Dharmapala, who later became the President of Nalanada University.
Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived during Simhavishnu’s reign.
Another Sanskrit writer, Dandin, graced the court of Narasimhavarman II.
The Sanskrit play Mattavilasa Prahasana was written by Mahendravarman I.
Tamil literature had also grown during this period.
During this time, music and dance flourished as well.
Tamil devotional saints used music and dance to bring the “concept of compassionate God” to life.
Religious hymns were sung with music and dance accompaniment.

Art and Architecture of Pallava Dynasty

The religious revival of the time provided impetus for architectural activity. The Pallavas made enormous contributions to Indian art and architecture.
In fact, the Pallavas were the forefathers of the Dravidian style of Indian architecture in the south. It was a gradual progression from cave temples to monolithic Rathas, culminating in structural temples.
The Pallavas had also aided in the advancement of sculpture. Beautiful sculptures adorn the walls of the Mandapas.
The sculpture at Mamallapuram depicting the “Descent of Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna” is a masterpiece of classical art.
Music, dance, and painting had also flourished under the Pallavas’ patronage. The paintings in the Sittannavasal caves date from the Pallava period.

Decline of Pallavas

The attack and temporary occupation of Kanchi by Vikramaditya II may be regarded as the beginning of the end of Pallava supremacy over South India.
The Pallava kingdom was attacked by the Pandyas, the western Gangas, and the Rashtrakutas.
Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta Kingdom, defeated Nandivarman, but the latter offered his daughter Reva in marriage to the former, preventing the Pallava Kingdom from collapsing.
Pallava rule lasted until the end of the ninth century CE. The other rulers were Dantivarman (795 – 846 CE), Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE), and Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE).
The last Pallava king was Aparajitavarman (903 CE).
Aditya I, the Chola king, defeated Aparjitavarman and took control of the Kanchi region. With this, the Pallava hegemony over South India came to an end.

Conclusion

From 275 CE to 897 CE, the Pallavas established themselves as a formidable power in South India. They were able to maintain their rule for approximately 500 years. Pallava’s fortunes declined after Narasimhavarman. The Chalukyan army invaded the Pallava kingdom and threatened Kanchipuram, its capital. Aparajitavarman was the last king of the Pallava dynasty, and his defeat by the Chola king brought the Pallava power to an end around the end of the 9th century.

Chalukyas (6th to 12 Century)

With the downfall of the Gupta dynasty, dramatic changes began to occur in the Deccan and southern areas of Vindhyas. With the rise of the Chalukyas, the political climate in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires. The Chalukyas of Badami were the Vakatakas’ successors in western Deccan. They established their capital in Vatapi, modern Badami, in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. From 543 to 753 CE, they ruled over a large area in the Deccan and united the entire south of India. The Chalukya dynasty ruled from the sixth to the twelfth centuries when Pulakeshin I established the Chalukya dynasty in 543 AD. For the first time in history, a South Indian kingdom seized and consolidated control of the entire region between the Kaveri and Narmada rivers. Later, they split into several independent ruling houses, but the main branch remained in power at Vatapi. Their era was also significant in Indian history because of their cultural contributions.

Chalukyas – Background

Between the 6th and 12th centuries, the Chalukya dynasty ruled vast areas of southern and central India.
The Chalukyas ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the sixth century.
They asserted their independence and rose to prominence under Pulakeshin II’s reign.
Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas dynasty.
But the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesin I (543–566 CE).
After him, Pulakeshin II ruled over the whole Deccan and was the Badami dynasty’s most well-known ruler.
Following the death of Pulakeshin II, the Badami Chalukya dynasty had a brief period of decline due to internal feuds.
During the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in driving the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire.
The next great ruler was Vikramaditya II (733–744 AD) and the kingdom reached its pinnacle under his reign.
Vikramaditya II conquered the three traditional kingdoms of Tamil land i.e. the Pandyas, Cholas, and Cheras.

Divisions in Chalukya Dynasty

Chalukyas governed as three separate but related dynasties i.e. Badami, Eastern and Western Chalukyas during this time.
The “Badami Chalukyas” the first dynasty, ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the sixth century.
They become independent and rose to dominance under Pulakeshin II’s reign.
Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas dynasty but the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesin I (543–566 CE).
The Eastern Chalukyas founded an independent state in the eastern Deccan after Pulakeshin II death. They ruled Vengi until the 11th century.
The Chalukyas of Vengi separated out from the Badami Chalukyas.
In 624 A.D, Pulakeshin II (609–642 AD) placed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as governor of the newly gained region of eastern Deccan.
After Pulakeshin II death, his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana developed an independent state.
In the western Deccan, the decline of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 10th century led to the emergence of Western Chalukyas. They ruled till the 12th century.
The Western Chalukya Empire is also known as the Kalyani Chalukya Empire.
Tailapa-II, who was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta, established this dynasty.
For 200 years, they were at odds with the Cholas as well as the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.

Important Rulers of Chalukya Dynasty

Pulakesin I (543 – 566 AD)

Jayasimha was Pulakesin’s grandfather and Ranaraga was his father.
His forefathers were vassal monarchs, most likely from the Kadambas or Rashtrakutas.
Pulakesin I (543–566 AD) was the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty.
He established a strong fortification at Vapati (modern Badami) in Karnataka’s Bijapur district and declared independence by sacrificing a horse.
The name ‘Pulakesin’ may be a Sanskrit-Kannada hybrid word meaning “tiger-haired”.

Kirtivarman I (566 – 597 AD)

After his father, Pulakesin I, died in 566 AD, Kirtivarman I seized the throne.
Kirtivarman inherited a small empire based on Vatapi, which he greatly expanded.
His empire stretched from the Konkan coast of modern-day Maharashtra in the north to Karnataka’s Shimoga region in the south.
And from the Arabian Sea in the west to Andhra Pradesh’s Kurnool and Guntur districts in the east.
According to the Pulakesin II Aihole inscription, Kirtivarman was “the night of doom” for the Nalas, Mauryas, and Kadambas.
He performed the Bahusuvarna-Agnishtom Yagya which is mentioned in the Mahakuta pillar inscription.

Mangalesha (597 AD – 609 AD)

Mangalesha succeeded his elder brother Kirtivarman I, who was most likely his half-brother and left at least three minor sons.
Mangalesha “took upon himself the responsibility of governance” because Kirtivarman’s son Pulakesin II was a minor, according to later Chalukya inscriptions at Kalyani.
He reigned a kingdom that stretched from southern Gujarat in the north to the Bellary-Kurnool region in the south.
He administered the kingdom during the reign of Kirtivarman, who was preoccupied with military adventures.
Kirtivarman and Mangalesha may have alternated administering the kingdom and commanding military battles.
Mangalesha rejected Pulakesin’s claim to the throne, sent him into exile, and potentially appointed his own son as the heir apparent.
Pulakesin II plotted an attack against Mangalesha during his exile, which he was eventually successful and murdered the Mangalesha.

Pulakesin II (609AD-642AD)

Pulakesin-II was the most powerful ruler of the Badami Chalukyas.
He was the first king to issue gold coins in South India.
He was too young when his father died, that’s why his paternal uncle Mangalesha was elevated to the throne (regent king).
Pulakesin II ascended the throne after defeating Mangalesha in the Bana territory at Elpattu-Simbhige.
He is famous for defeating King Harsha on the banks of the Narmada.
He also took on the title Daskshinapatheshwara, similar to Harsha’s Uttarpatheshwara.
He defeated Pallava king Mahendravarman I, but was defeated and killed by Mahendravarman’s son and successor, Narasimhavarman I.

Vikramaditya I (655 AD – 680 AD)

Vikramaditya was the third son of Pulakesin II.
He set himself the task of repelling the Pallava invasion and restoring the unity of his father’s kingdom with the assistance of his maternal grandfather Bhuvikarma or Durvineet of the Western Ganga Dynasty.
He was able to put an end to Pallava’s thirteen-year occupation and capture Vatapi.
He defeated Mahendravarman II (Pallava king) in 668 AD and continued his capture of Kanchi for about five to six years.
During this time, he plundered the Chola, Pandya, and Kerala kingdoms but did not annex any territory (his army remained in Thiruchirapalli).
Vikramaditya took on the dynastic titles of Satyashraya (“refuge of truth”) and Shri-prithvi-vallabha.
Vikramaditya I, in addition to the usual Chalukyan titles, assumed the title Rajamalla, implying that he became the sovereign of Mallas, i.e. the Pallavas.

Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)

Kirtivarman was the son of Vikramaditya II.
He was also known as Nripasimha (lion among kings).
When he succeeded to the throne, Chalukyas seemed to be at their best because the Pallavas were defeated, the Deccan was taken over by the Chalukyas, and the seemingly invincible Muslims were repulsed.
However, within a decade, Kirtivarman had lost his glory, as the rising power of Rashtrakutas and Pandyas caused trouble for the Chalukya king.
The Chalukyas came to an end with Kirtivarman II, who was deposed in 753 AD by Dantidurga.

Administration of Chalukyas

At higher levels of Chalukyas, the government was modelled after the administrative systems of Magadha and Satavahana.
King was the state’s highest-ranking official. Some scholars believe that kings had unrestricted power, but others disagree. However, it is undeniable that the majority of Chalukya kings worked for the welfare of the people.
The king’s chief queen was known as ‘Tattamahish.’ The prince was elevated to the post of Yuvaraja.
The King was the highest judicial authority and the head of the administrative council.
There was a council of ministers and other officers to advise the king and assist him in administration. Mahamatya was the name of the Prime Minister.
In addition to ministers, there were other officers who assisted the king in the administration of the state like

Administration of Manda — Mahamandaleshwar

Chief of the army — Dandadhipatya

Heads of the village — Visayika

Heads of the law department — Adhishthanaka

Revenue collection — Pattaiika

The empire was divided into provinces and other units for administration. Mandal was the topmost unit of the empire and Mahamandateshwara was its administrator.
The empire was divided into villages known as Visha for local administration. Gram sabha and gram panchayats ran the villages on a local level. Vishayaka was the chief of Visha.
Pattaiika was appointed as a special officer in charge of revenue collection. Land revenue was the state’s main source of income and it was levied at a rate of one-sixth of production.
The Chalukyas had a four-winged army known as the ‘Chaturangini.’ The elephant army was given a lot of importance. King was the supreme commander of the Army.
Senapati’s duties were carried out by Danda Nayaka or Dandadhipatya.
Samantas maintained separate armies and assisted their kings when needed.
During the Chalukyas’ reign, there were separate military and civil courts.
The King was the highest judicial authority, and his decisions were based on conventions and the advice of his ministers.

Society of Chalukyas

Chalukyas followed the Hindu caste system and Brahmins held a privileged position as knowledge and local justice providers.
These Brahmins were typically involved in careers based on religion and learning, with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial arts.
Sati may have been absent because widows such as Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records.
Devadasis were recognised by the government and were present in temples.
Sage Bharata’s Natyashastra, the precursor to Bharatanatyam, was popular and can be seen in many sculptures and inscriptions.
Some women from the royal family held positions of political power in administration, which shows women held high positions in society.
Women’s participation in the fine arts is documented in records, such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi’s and Kalachuris of Kalyani queen Sovala Devi’s skill in dance and music.
In terms of eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists, and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian, whereas other communities enjoyed various types of meat.
Domesticated meat such as goats, sheep, pigs, and fowl, as well as exotic meat such as partridge, hare, wildfowl, and boar, were sold by marketplace vendors.
People found indoor entertainment by watching wrestling matches (Kusti), watching animals fight (such as cock fights and ram fights), or gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor recreation activity.
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records, and they were built near temples.

Art and Architecture of Chalukyas

The Badami Chalukya era was a watershed moment in the evolution of South Indian architecture.
This dynasty’s kings were known as Umapati Varlabdh, and they built numerous temples for the Hindu god Shiva.
Their architectural style is known as “Chalukyan architecture” or “Karnata Dravida architecture.”
They built nearly a hundred monuments, both rock-cut (cave) and structural, in the Malaprabha river basin in the modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka.
The Western Chalukyas’ art is sometimes referred to as “Gadag style,” after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka.
Aside from temples, the architecture of the dynasty is well known for the ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) that served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi.

Religion of Chalukyas

The Chalukyas were Vedic Hindus who built temples in Aihole, Pattadakal and Mahakuta which were dedicated to popular Hindu deities.
During their period, both Shaivism and Vaishnavism prospered, particularly by Badami and Eastern Chalukyas.
Whereas, the Western Chalukyas were the followers of Virashaivism.
Virashaivism, also known as Lingayatism, is a Hindu sect based on Shaivism.
Vedic sacrifices, sacred vows, and gift-giving were all significant.
Sculptures of Hindu gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Kartikeya, Ganapathi, Shakti, Surya, and Sapta Matrikas (seven mothers) attest to their popularity.
With the spread of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy in the 8th century, the decline of Buddhism in South India began.
Buddhism was in decline but Jainism was able to maintain considerable public support.
The primary educational centres of Badami Chalukyas were Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti, and Puligere.

Decline of Chalukyas

Jayasimha was the first ruler, but the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesin I (543–566 CE).
After him, Pulakeshin II ruled over the whole Deccan and after his death, there was a brief period of decline due to internal feuds.
But Vikramaditya II (733–744 AD) reached the kingdom to its pinnacle.
After, Vikramaditya II, the kingdom began to downfall.
Within a decade, Kirtivarman had lost his glory, as the rising power of Rashtrakutas and Pandyas caused trouble for the Chalukya king.
In 753 AD, the Rashtrakuta Ruler Dantidurga deposed the last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II.
The Chalukyas of Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas separated out from the Badami Chalukyas.
Rulers like Kubja Vishnuvardhana and Jayasimha I tried to maintain the kingdom.
Vengi came to an agreement with the Rashtrakutas and treated them as allies.
They were able to maintain their independence till the Rashtrakutas were overthrown in 973 A.D. by the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Lastly, the Vengi kingdom succumbed to the Chola empire and came to an end.
Western Chalukyas was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta, established this dynasty.
For 200 years, they were at odds with the Cholas as well as the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
The Deccan ruling families, the Hoysalas and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri were subordinates to the Western Chalukyas.
The Kingdoms of their feudatories were founded on the ruins of these two empires, and their mutual antagonisms occupied the annals of Deccan history for over a century.
In the 12th century, the Hoysala Empire finally destroyed the Western Chalukyas.

Conclusion

The reign of the Chalukyas was a watershed moment in South Indian history. The entire territory between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers was captured by a kingdom headquartered in Southern India. The introduction of effective administration, a surge in overseas trade and commerce, and the development of a new architectural style known as Vesara all occurred during the expansion of this mighty empire. They were Vedic culture devotees, and this period is known as the golden age of Karnataka.

Rashtrakutas (750 – 900 CE)

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruled parts of South India from the eighth to the tenth centuries CE. At its peak, their kingdom encompassed the entire modern state of Karnataka, as well as parts of the current Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Their capital was Malkhed, which was located near Sholapur. Because of their geographical location, the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was involved in alliances and wars with both their northern and southern neighboring kingdoms. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s earlier rulers were Hindus, but later rulers were Jains, according to historical records.

Origin of Rashtrakutas

Historians have argued about the origins of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
The relationship of medieval Rashtrakutas who ruled in the 6th century to Manyakheta Rashtrakutas who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been disputed.
Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain their genesis. They do claim to be descended from the Epic-era Yadava family. According to some scholars, they are of the Kshatriya race that gave Maharashtra its name.
According to popular belief, they were a clan of ancestry officials tasked with governing Rashtrakutas’ provinces. As a result, it was adopted as a surname.
It is clear, however, that they established their empire over the ruins of the Chalukyas.

Important Rulers of Rashtrakutas

Krishna I (756-774)

Dantidurga died without a male heir, and his uncle Krishna I (756 – 774 CE) succeeded him.
When Krishna I routed their erstwhile masters, the Badami Chalukyas, in 757 CE, he effectively ended that dynasty’s rule.
He grew his kingdom by invading and defeating the Gangas, subjugating the Konkans, and sending his own son to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi and accepting their submission without a fight.
Krishna I am also culturally significant in Indian history because he was the architect of the magnificent Kailasa Temple of Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage site now).

Govinda II (774-780)

Govinda II, Krishna I’s eldest son, succeeded him (r. c. 774-780 CE).
Govinda II’s military exploits include traveling to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom on his father’s orders and assisting a certain Ganga king in regaining the throne from his brother.
It is unknown how he died, but he was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793)

The ascension of Dhruva Dharavarsha (r. 780-793 CE) marks the beginning of the Rashtrakutas’ golden age.
He began his military conquests by punishing all the kings who were friendly to his elder brother, and then ventured into imperial Kannauj and defeated its king.
Dhruva then defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara Kingdom of Central India and the Pala Kingdom of Eastern India, which was centered around present-day Bengal, and thus began the tripartite struggle for control of India’s main heartland between the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire, the Rashtrakutas, and the Pala Dynasty.
His other victories included subjugating the Vengi king, who could only ensure peace by marrying his own daughter to Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Govinda III (793-814)

Govinda III (r. 793-814 CE) succeeded his father Dhruva, and despite ascending to power through a family feud, he quickly proved to be the most powerful emperor of this dynasty militarily.
Dhruva had successfully moved into North India during his time, but he had not gained many lands.
Govinda III rectified this by expanding his kingdom from Kannauj to the Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari now) and from the east of India from Banaras, Bengal, and so on to the west of India, primarily to the Gujarat territories.
He defeated numerous kings and rulers along the way, including the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II, King Dharmapala of the Pala Empire, Pallava Dantivarman, Cholas, Pandya, and several others.

Amoghavarsha I (814-878)

Amoghavarsha I, the son of Govinda III, was the greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Amoghavarsha I established a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State), and Broach became the best part of the kingdom during his reign.
Amoghavarsha I was a great supporter of education and literature.
Amoghavarsha was converted to Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
Suleman, an Arab merchant, described Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the world, along with the Caliph of Bagdad, the King of Constantinople, and the Emperor of China.
Amoghavarsha ruled for 64 years.

Krishna II (878-914)

Krishna II (reigned 878–914 CE) succeeded his famous father, Amoghavarsha I Nrupatunga, to the Rashtrakuta throne. Kannara was his Kannada name.
His queen was Mahadevi, a Haihaya princess from Chedi. According to the chronology of inscriptions that mention the name of this king, Krishna II may have begun to rule even during his father’s lifetime.
The fact that Amoghavarsha renounced state affairs in his final years to pursue religious pursuits lends credence to this claim.
Krishna II’s reign saw significant advances in literature, though his reign was mixed in terms of empire expansion.
During his reign, he cultivated a matrimonial alliance with Chedis in order to gain a military advantage.

Indra III (914-929)

Indraraja was the son of Jagattunga and Lakshmi, a Kalachuri dynasty princess.
His coronation took place in Kurundaka, a village near the confluence of the Krishna and Panchganga rivers, rather than in the kingdom’s capital.
According to a copper plate, Indraraja III destroyed Meru, which was ruled by Pratihara Mahipala. This could be a reference to Mahodaya, a different name for Kanauj.
During his reign, the author Trivikrama Bhatta published Damayanti Katha and Madalasa Champu.
Indraraja III died and was succeeded by his elder son, Amoghavarsha II, who died within a year of becoming emperor.

Krishna III (939-967)

The last great Rashtrakuta Ruler, consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada river to Kaveri and included the Northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.
He was engaged in a struggle against the Paramars of Malwa and the Eastern Chalukya of Vengi.
In about 949 CE, he also defeated the Chola king Parantaka I and annexed the northern part of the Chola Empire.
He then marched towards Rameshwaram and set up a pillar of victory there and also built a temple.

Karka (972-973)

Karakaraja ascended to the throne shortly after the death of his uncle Khottiga at the hands of the invading Malwa king in C.E 972.
This demonstrates that the kingdom was not annexed, but rather plundered and destroyed to some extent.
The Malwa invasion severely weakened the Rashtrakutas, and the Chalukya king Tailapa II took advantage of the opportunity to launch an attack in 973 C.E., completing the destruction begun by Siyaka II of Malwa.
An inscription by Vijjaya of the Kalachuri dynasty, the Rashtrakutas’ primary feudatory for two centuries, confirms that Karakraja II was killed by Tailapa during the Chalukya invasion.

Administration of Rashtrakutas

The King was the supreme ruler in the Rashtrakuta system of government. The inscriptions show that the next ruler is chosen on a hereditary basis.
However, the new emperor’s abilities were also taken into account as he ascended to the throne. The kingdom was divided into provinces, each of which was governed by a ‘Rashtrapati.’
A district was overseen by a ‘Vishayapati’ under the provinces. The trustworthy ministers ruled over more than one province.
The district was overseen by a ‘Nadugowda,’ and the lowest division was a village overseen by a ‘Gramapati.’

Literature of Rashtrakutas

Kannada literature rose to prominence during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s reign. The Prakrit and Sanskrit eras came to an end during this time period.
Court poets produced literary works in Kannada and Sanskrit. ‘Kavirajamarga,’ written by King Amoghavarsha, was the first Kannada book available.
In the court of King Amoghavarsha I, bilingual writers such as Asaga rose to prominence and noted scholars such as Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics.
Adipurana was written by the Jain writer Adikavi Pampa, who is widely regarded as one of the most influential Kannada writers.
Sri Ponna was another notable Jain writer in Kannada, patronized by King Krishna III and best known for Shantipurana, his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara.
Prose works in Sanskrit were also prolific during this time period.

Art and Architecture of Rashtrakutas

The rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta in present-day Maharashtra reflect the Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s contributions to art and architecture. They also re-dedicated rock-cut shrines and renovated Buddhist caves.
At Ellora, Amoghavarsha I dedicated five Jain cave temples. The monolithic Kailashnath Temple is Rashtrakutas’ most spectacular work at Ellora.
After Rashtrakuta rule had spread to the Deccan, King Krishna I funded this project. Dravidian was the architectural style.
Ardhanaarishwar and Maheshamurti are two other notable sculptures at Elephanta.
The Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora, as well as the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai, are two other well-known rock-cut temples in Maharashtra.
Rashtrakutas built the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
The important architecture includes:

Kailasanatha Temple

The Kailasa temple in Ellora Cave 16 is one of the world’s largest rock-cut temples.
The temple’s construction began during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga (735-757 AD).
The temple’s major construction was completed by King Dantidurga’s successor, Krishna I (757-773 AD), though work continued for more than a century under many successive kings.
It is situated in the Maharashtra town of Ellora. Pallava and Chalukya styles can be seen in the temple architecture.
The temple grounds contain five detached shrines, three of which are dedicated to the river goddesses Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati.

Elephanta Caves

The Elephanta Caves are the focal point of Elephanta Island, which is located in Mumbai Harbour, off the coast of Mumbai (Bombay), India.
The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.
The island’s modern name, Elephanta from Gharapuri, was given by the Portuguese.
The caves date back to the Silhara kings of the ninth to thirteenth centuries (810–1260).
Some of the site’s sculptures have been attributed to the imperial Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, such as the Trimurti of Elephanta, which depicts Shiva with three faces, similar to the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, the Rashtrakutas’ royal insignia.

Society and Culture of Rashtrakutas

The Rashtrakuta Empire’s subjects looked up to their emperor or king as the ultimate authority who was expected to look after them and uphold current social justice, order, and peace.
For day-to-day matters, however, there were guilds or co-operatives that would settle any disputes according to custom, and if the case could not be resolved, it was brought to the attention of a higher authority.
These guilds generally followed the prevailing rules and regulations of a specific group or caste, deviating only in exceptional circumstances.
Society was divided into castes based on profession. The ruling castes had their own set of rules, regulations, and customs that they strictly adhered to. They, too, adhered to ancient orthodoxy.
However, because the Rashtrakuta rulers were tolerant of all religions, society was generally accepting of adherents of various faiths.

Religion and Language

Kannada is one of the most important languages in modern India, and it was the Rashtrakutas who popularized it and made it a tool of daily communication, despite the fact that the language had already been in use for a long time.
They also supported Sanskrit, which was a language of the elite. Amoghavarsha I was instrumental in the creation of seminal works in both languages, and his Kavirajamarga was a watershed moment in Kannada poetry.
His work in Sanskrit was widely praised and read in other Asian countries.
According to legend, Amoghavarsha I endorsed Jainism, and as a result, many Jain scholars flourished in his court, including the Jain mathematician Mahavirachariya.
Adikabi Pampa and Sri Ponna flourished in Kannada and are now regarded as iconic contributors to the language.

Decline of Rashtrakutas

The Rashtrakutas’ decline began with the reign of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, who was defeated and killed by a Paramara dynasty ruler in 972 CE, with the capital Manyakheta plundered and destroyed, severely denting the dynasty’s prestige.
Indra IV, the kingdom’s last ruler, committed suicide in 982 CE by performing a Jaina ritual known as Sallekhana, which is a practice of fasting to death.
The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ended, but their influence endured.
Parts of their kingdom were annexed by the later Cholas and other dynasties, but their government system and several other cultural practices were adopted by subsequent empires.

Conclusion

The Rashtrakutas established a vast empire and a glorious rule. Rashtrakuta made significant contributions to religion, art, and architecture. They not only conquered the entire south of India but also penetrated deeply into the territories of the north. Many of them were lauded as unbeatable conquerors and effective rulers. The Rashtrakuta dynasty’s reign in the Deccan was perhaps the most brilliant period in its history. No other Deccan ruling dynasties played such a dominant role in Indian history until the rise of the Marathas as an imperial power in the 18th century. Their campaigns against powerful opponents were consistently crowned with brilliant success.